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标题：[分享]实用英语语法(与众不同的理解方法)
21楼
backbak 发表于：2006-6-2 9:03:19第十六课 V扩充子的复杂组合：(MOD)+(PERF)+(PROG)+(PASS)+V
16-1 [V扩充子的复杂组合]
我们已经学习了必须的动词扩充子{Agreement呼应}和可选择动词扩充子的组合，它们是{Modal} EPD(MOD), {Perfect} EPD(PERF), {Progressive} EPD(PROG)和{Passive} EPD(PASS)。树形图：
16-2 [树形图和例句]
例如，句子(2)由句(5)生成。
注意，当你使用两个，三个或四个可选择的动词扩充子时，必须遵守一定的顺序。例如，以下顺序就不能被接受。
我们已经学习了必须的动词扩充子{Agreement呼应}和可选择动词扩充子的组合，它们是{Modal} EPD(MOD), {Perfect} EPD(PERF), {Progressive} EPD(PROG)和{Passive} EPD(PASS)。树形图：
(1) V
／ ＼
EPD[AGR] V
(PRS/PST) ／ ＼
(EPD[MOD]) V
(EPD[PERF])
(EPD[PROG])
(EPD[PASS])
像你想象的一样，这四种可选择的动词扩充子有时可以两种，三种，甚至四种组合在一起。 (2) The computer will have written a novel in a week.
计算机将会在一周内完成小说。
("will" + "have-en" + "write a novel")
(3) A novel will have been written ? by the computer by next
month.
下个月之前小说将在计算机上完成。
("will" + "have-en" + "be-en" + "write a novel")
(4) A novel will have been being written ? for 10,000 hours
by the computer tomorrow morning.
到明天早上，小说将花10，000个小时在计算机上完成。
("will" + "have-en" + "be-ing" + "be-en" + "write
a novel")
在(2), (3)和(4)中的动词短语包括复杂动词扩充子的组合，即complex combination of V EPDs 。16-2 [树形图和例句]
例如，句子(2)由句(5)生成。
(5) The computer + PRS + will + have-en + write a novel + in a week
↓ ↓ ↓
(6) The computer will
have
written a novel in a week.
树形图: (7) (will have written a novel)
V
／ ＼
EPD[AGR] V
(PRS) ／ ＼
EPD[MOD] V
(will) ／ ＼
EPD[PERF] V
(have-en) (write a novel)
下面的树形图(8)和(9)分别和(3)和(4)对应。 (8) (will have been written ? )
V
／ ＼
EPD[AGR] V
(PRS) ／ ＼
EPD[MOD] V
(will) ／ ＼
EPD[PERF] V
(have-en) ／ ＼
EPD[PASS] V
(be-en) (write a novel)
(9) (will have been being written ? )
V
／ ＼
EPD[AGR] V
(PRS) ／ ＼
EPD[MOD] V
(will) ／ ＼
EPD[PERF] V
(have-en) ／ ＼
EPD[PROG] V
(be-ing) ／ ＼
EPD[PASS] V
(be-en) (write a novel)
其它例句： (10) The parrot will have mastered English in a year.
英语将在一年后掌握英语。
(11) I must be dreaming.
我一定是在做梦。
(12) Tom will be invited ? to the party.
汤姆将被邀请参加那个聚会
(13) We have been expecting your call.
我一直在期待你来电话。
(14) A new shopping center is being built ? in the suburbs.
一家新的购物中心正在郊区建造。
(15) I have been being underpaid ? too long.
我被少发工资太长时间了。
16-3 [V扩充子复杂组合的数/顺序] 注意，当你使用两个，三个或四个可选择的动词扩充子时，必须遵守一定的顺序。例如，以下顺序就不能被接受。
(16) * (PRS/PST) + have-en + will (+ V)
(ex.*has willen write a novel)
(17) * (PRS/PST) + be-ing + have-en (+ V)
(ex.*is having written)
(18) * (PRS/PST) + be-en + be-ing (+ V)
(ex.*is been writing)
例如，动词扩充子"have-en"前面绝对不能出现"will"，"have-en"前面不能出现"be-ing"，"be-ing"前面不能出现"be-en"。简而言之，这些可选择的动词扩充子顺序应该为：(19) PRS/PST → "will",etc → "have-en" → "be-ing" → "be-en" → V动词扩充的排列顺序如(20)所示。
(20) PRS/PST (MOD)(PERF)(PROG) (PASS) V
( ( )means "optional" ( )的意思是“可选择的”)
单从规则(20)来看，我们可以产生十六种组合如下。[ 例句是带有PRS(第三人称单数)的AGR（即，V EPD{Agreement}）, "will"作为MOD, "write a novel"作为动词。] (21)a. PRS/PST + V
(ex. writes a novel)
b. PRS/PST+will + V
(ex. will write a novel)
c. PRS/PST+have-en +V
(ex. has written a novel)
d. PRS/PST+be-ing + V
(ex. is writing a novel)
e. PRS/PST+be-en + V
(ex. is written ?)
f. PRS/PST+will + have-en + V
(ex. will have written a novel)
g. PRS/PST+will + be-ing + V
(ex. will be writing a novel)
h. PRS/PST+will + be-en + V
(ex. will be written ?)
i. PRS/PST+have-en + be-ing + V
(ex. has been writing a novel)
j. PRS/PST+have-en + be-en + V
(ex. has been written ?)
k. PRS/PST+be-ing + be-en + V
(ex. is being written ?)
l. PRS/PST+will + have-en + be-ing + V
(ex. will have been writing a novel)
m. PRS/PST+will + have-en + be-en + V
(ex. will have been written ?)
n. PRS/PST+will + be-ing + be-en + V
(ex. will be being written ?)
o. PRS/PST+have-en + be-ing + be-en + V
(ex. has been being written ?)
p. PRS/PST+will + have-en + be-ing + be-en + V
(ex. will have been being written ?)
然而，一些语言学家认为，(21h)以下的用法是"罕见的"，不可行的。22楼
backbak 发表于：2006-6-2 9:03:41第十七课 强调句(EMPH-S)
17-1 [核心句(K-S) 和 强调句(EMPH-S)]
一个句子可以扩充成另一个句子。请看以下句子。
根据公式(3)，句子(1b)和(2b)分别由(1a)和(2a)转变过来。
由于重音/音调的变化使得在17-1小节中句子意思的变化。我们可以把这种重音归纳成一种扩充子，称作一个句子扩充子{强调}，即EPD {Emphasis}, 或者EMPH。从而, (1b)和(2b)的树形图为：
一个句子扩充子{Emphasis强调}, EMPH, 使核心句(K-S)变成一个强调句(EMPH-S)。
扩充子EMPH有两种重音方式： (i)不带有 DO/DOES/DID(-DO Type)和 (ii)带有DO/DOES/DID(+DO Type)
EMPH方式如下：
17-4 [操作子（operator)]
传统上被加了重音的单词叫做 “操作子” operator。下列句子中，ARE, SHOULD, HAS, IS, WAS, DO, DOES, 和DID都是“操作子”。
17-5 [EMPH的作用域：全句强调 与 单词/短语强调]
例句(17a)是整句话被强调的强调句。注意它不同于例句(17b)和(17c)，它们分别强调动词"WROTE"和"to JOHN"。
在(17a)中，整个句子是EMPH的作用域, 而在(17b)和(17c)中仅有"WROTE"和"to JOHN"是EMPH的作用域。换言之，第一个EMPH 是一个句子扩充子(S EPD),而后面的EMPHs 则分别是动词扩充子(V EPD)和副词扩充子(AD EPD)。
下面的树形图将反映出它们的差别。
一个句子可以扩充成另一个句子。请看以下句子。
(1)a. John is a vegetarian. 约翰是素食主义者。
b. John IS a vegetarian. 约翰真的是素食主义者。
(2)a. John likes onions. 约翰喜欢洋葱。
b. John DOES like onions. 约翰确实喜欢洋葱。
(大写的单词，像IS和DOES，表示它们有重音,即accent。
同样用法将在下文继续用大写字母标出。)
句子(1b)从句子(1a)转变过来；它们的区别是后者(1b)有了新的意思，即{Emphasis强调}的意思。在本书中，我们称后一种类型为强调句，emphatic sentence，或者EMPH-S，如(1b)和(2b)。我们称前者为核心句，kernel sentence, 或K-S，如(1a)和(2a)。核心句是原型的意思。根据公式(3)，句子(1b)和(2b)分别由(1a)和(2a)转变过来。
(3) {Emphasis} + Kernel Sentence(K-S)
Emphatic Sentence(EMPH-S)
17-2 [树形图] 由于重音/音调的变化使得在17-1小节中句子意思的变化。我们可以把这种重音归纳成一种扩充子，称作一个句子扩充子{强调}，即EPD {Emphasis}, 或者EMPH。从而, (1b)和(2b)的树形图为：
(4) EMPH-S
／ ＼
EPD[EMPH] K-S
(accent)
17-3 [EMPH的操作] 一个句子扩充子{Emphasis强调}, EMPH, 使核心句(K-S)变成一个强调句(EMPH-S)。
扩充子EMPH有两种重音方式： (i)不带有 DO/DOES/DID(-DO Type)和 (ii)带有DO/DOES/DID(+DO Type)
EMPH方式如下：
(i) -DO Type （不带有DO类型）
(5) EMPH + [John + PRS + be a vegetarian]
↓Step 1
[John + PRSaccent + be a vegetarian]
↓
[John IS a vegetarian]
(ii) +DO Type （带有DO类型）
(6) EMPH + [John + PRS + like onions]
↓Step 1
[John + PRS + do + like onions]
↓Step 2
[John + PRSaccent + do + like onions]
↓
[John + DOES + like onions]
换句话说，EMPH根据动词的类型有两种回应；-DO型或+DO型。 <EMPH>
EMPH-(i) [-DO Type型]:当PRS/PST直接位于非普通动词(Vcom普通
动词)前时，
第一步：把重音放在PRS/PST上。
EMPH-(ii)[+DO Type型]:当PRS/PST直接位于普通动词(Vcom)前时
第一步：在PRS/PST和Vcom中间插入"do"。
第二步：把重音放在PRS/PST上。
总之，PRS/PST 使重音落在PRS/PST上。它取决于紧接在PRS/PST后面元素的种类，是否生成的句子有DO/DOES/DID。17-4 [操作子（operator)]
传统上被加了重音的单词叫做 “操作子” operator。下列句子中，ARE, SHOULD, HAS, IS, WAS, DO, DOES, 和DID都是“操作子”。
(i) -DO Type型
(7) We ARE friends. 我们是朋友啊。
(8) You SHOULD take this medicine. 你确实应该吃这药。
(9) The typhoon HAS gone. 台风已经过去了啊。
(10) Dad IS doing the dishes. 爸爸确实正在刷盘子。
(11) My wallet WAS stolen. 我的钱包被偷了！
(ii) +DO Type型
(12) We DO go to school on Saturdays. 我们确实周六去学校。
(13) This mustard DOES work. 这芥末确实管用。
(14) The president DID take dirty money. 那位总统确实受贿了。
注意操作子和前面名词的一致。
(15) We + PRSaccent + be friends
→ We ARE/*WERE/*AM friends. (=7)
(16) We + PRSaccent + do + go to school on Saturdays.
→ We DO/*DOES/*DID go to school on Saturdays. (=12)
在英语中操作子是一个非常重要的概念，因为它在构成否定句(NEG-S), 疑问句(Q-S)等等中起着非常重要的作用。进一步的解释将在第18课至21课中给出。17-5 [EMPH的作用域：全句强调 与 单词/短语强调]
例句(17a)是整句话被强调的强调句。注意它不同于例句(17b)和(17c)，它们分别强调动词"WROTE"和"to JOHN"。
(17)a. Mary DID write to John yesterday. 昨天玛丽确实给约翰写信了。
b. Mary WROTE to John yesterday. 玛丽昨天是写信给约翰的。
c. Mary wrote to JOHN yesterday. 玛丽昨天给约翰写信了。
在(17a)中，整个句子和"Mary DIDN'T write to John yesterday"形成对比, 然而在 (17b)中，动词"WROTE"是和其它动词如"CALLED"或"E-MAILED"作对比的，在(17c)中，状语"to JOHN"和其它短语如"to JOE"或"to MAX"形成对比。在(17a)中，整个句子是EMPH的作用域, 而在(17b)和(17c)中仅有"WROTE"和"to JOHN"是EMPH的作用域。换言之，第一个EMPH 是一个句子扩充子(S EPD),而后面的EMPHs 则分别是动词扩充子(V EPD)和副词扩充子(AD EPD)。
下面的树形图将反映出它们的差别。
(18) (Mary DID write to John yesterday)
EMPH-S
／ ＼
EPD[EMPH] K-S
(accent) (Mary wrote to John yesterday)
(19) (Mary WROTE to John yesterday)
S
／ ＼
N V
(Mary) ／ ＼
EPD[AGR] V
(PST) ／ ＼
V AD
／ ＼ (to John yesterday)
EPD[EMPH] V
(accent) (write)
(20) (Mary wrote to JOHN yesterday)
S
／ ＼
N V
(Mary) ／ ＼
EPD[AGR] V
(PST) ／ ＼
V AD
(write) ／ ＼
AD AD
／ ＼ (yesterday)
EPD[EMPH] AD
(accent) (to John)
23楼
backbak 发表于：2006-6-2 9:04:01第十八课 否定句(EMPH-NEG-S/NEG-S/等)
18-1 [强调否定句(EMPH-NEG-S)]
通过添加一个新的语法含义{Emphatic Negation强调否定}，核心句可以扩充成为另一个句子，在本书中我们称它为强调否定句emphatic negative sentence, 或, EMPH-NEG-S。
(4)和(5)的转变如下图所示：
扩充子EMPH-NEG引发两个步骤。
步骤二: 在操作子上添加N'T/NOT。
以下图表将展示两个步骤。
一个强调否定句(EMPH-NEG-S)经常可以通过去除操作子强调的重音而转变成一个普通否定句。
因而，从核心句(K-S)到普通否定句(NEG-S)的扩充过程为
NEG引发两个步骤。
扩充子N'T/NOT/n't/not有时有很大的作用域，可以包括一整个句子，有时作用域小到一个单词或短语。
句子(10)至(15)与句子(23)至(28)都是句子否定的例子, 以下(29)至(32)是单词/短语否定的例子。总的来说，单词/短语的否定是由(EMPH-)NEG加上 (i)accent重音, (ii)100% word单词, 或者 (iii)pause停顿造成的。
作用域]
作用域]
既然副词(AD)和否定扩充子(EMPH-NEG/NEG)都可以扩充句子(S)，那么当两者同时出现，作用域根据不同情况发生变化。
(36)和(37)的树形图：
18-8 [极性(Polarity)]
一些特定的单词和词组永远带有否定扩充子如N'T/NOT/n't/not。
英语中还有一些其它否定元素。
通过添加一个新的语法含义{Emphatic Negation强调否定}，核心句可以扩充成为另一个句子，在本书中我们称它为强调否定句emphatic negative sentence, 或, EMPH-NEG-S。
(1)a. John is a vegetarian. 约翰是个素食主义者。
b. John ISN'T a vegetarian. 约翰确实不是素食主义者。
(2)a. John likes onions. 约翰喜欢洋葱。
b. John DOESN'T like onions. 约翰确实不喜欢洋葱。
强调否定句(1b)和(2b)是从核心句(1a)和(2a)分别转化来的。因此， (3) {Emphatic Negation} + Kernel Sentence(K-S)
Emphatic Negative Sentence(EMPH-NEG-S)
如果我们把S EPD {Emphatic Negation}叫做 EMPH-NEG, 那么从(1)和(2)的转变过程则如下图所示。 (4) EMPH-NEG + K-S(John is a vegetarian) [-DO Type型]
EMPH-NEG-S(John ISN'T a vegetarian)
(5) EMPH-NEG + K-S(John likes onions) [+DO Type型]
EMPH-NEG-S(John DOESN'T like onions)
18-2 [树形图] (4)和(5)的转变如下图所示：
(i) -DO Type型
(6) (John ISN'T a vegetarian)
EMPH-NEG-S
／ ＼
EPD[EMPH-NEG] K-S
(N'T) (John is a vegetarian)
(ii) +DO Type型
(7) (John DOESN'T like onions)
EMPH-NEG-S
／ ＼
EPD[EMPH-NEG] K-S
(N'T) (John likes onions)
18-3 [EMPH-NEG的操作] 扩充子EMPH-NEG引发两个步骤。
<EMPH-NEG>步骤一：在核心句(K-S)上添加EMPH。 (Operator Specification，称作操作子的特定)
步骤二: 在操作子上添加N'T/NOT。
以下图表将展示两个步骤。
(8) EMPH-NEG + [John is a vegetarian] [-DO Type型]
↓Step 1
[John IS a vegetarian]
↓Step 2
[John ISN'T a vegatarian]
(9) EMPH-NEG + [John likes onions] [+DO Type型]
↓Step 1
[John DOES like onions]
↓Step 2
[John DOESN'T like onions]
一些EMPH-NEG-S的其它例子。 (i) -DO Type型
(10) Bill CAN'T speak Esperanto. 比尔确实不会说世界语。
(11) The game last night WASN'T cancelled.
昨晚的比赛并没有取消。
(12) Mary HADN'T seen snow before. 玛丽以前确实从没看见过雪。
(ii) +DO Type型
(13) I DON'T have a driver's license. 我确实没有驾照。
(14) The boss DOESN'T look happy today.
老板今天看起来确实不太高兴。
(15) The train DIDN'T arrive on time. 火车确实没有按时到达。
18-4 [普通否定句(NEG-S)] 一个强调否定句(EMPH-NEG-S)经常可以通过去除操作子强调的重音而转变成一个普通否定句。
(i) -DO Type型
(16)a. John ISN'T a vegetarian. (EMPH-NEG-S) (=1b)
约翰确实不是素食主义者。
↓
b. John isn't a vegetarian. (NEG-S)
约翰不是素食主义者。
(ii) +DO Type型
(17)a. John DOESN'T like onions. (EMPH-NEG-S) (=2b)
约翰确实不喜欢洋葱。
↓
b. John doesn't like onions.(NEG-S)
约翰不喜欢洋葱。
因此，英语否定句有两种类型；强调句和普通句。与前者EMPH-NEG-S相对,我们称后者为一个普通否定句simple negative sentence, 或者NEG-S。把核心句(K-S)变成普通否定句(NEG-S)的扩充子叫做普通扩充子，即S EPD {Simple Negation}, 或者NEG。因而，从核心句(K-S)到普通否定句(NEG-S)的扩充过程为
(18) NEG + K-S(16b)和(17b)的树形图：
(19) (John isn't a vegetarian)
NEG-S
／ ＼
EPD[NEG] K-S
(n't) (John is a vegetarian)
(20) (John doesn't like onions)
NEG-S
／ ＼
EPD[NEG] K-S
(n't) (John likes onions)
18-5 [NEG的操作] NEG引发两个步骤。
<NEG>
步骤一：在核心句(K-S)上添加EMPH-NEG。
步骤二：去除在操作子和N'T/NOT上的重音。
句子(16b)和(17b)产生如下。 (21) NEG + [John is a vegetarian] [-DO Type型]
↓Step 1
[John ISN'T a vegetarian]
↓Step 2
[John isn't a vegetarian]
(22) NEG + [John likes onions] [+DO Type型]
↓Step 1
[John DOESN'T like onions]
↓Step 2
[John doesn't like onions]
其它例句： (i) -DO Typ型
(23) Bill can't speak Esperanto. 比尔不会讲世界语。
(24) The game last night wasn't cancelled.
昨天晚上的比赛没有取消。
(25) Mary hadn't seen snow before. 玛丽以前没有看见过雪。
(ii) +DO Type型
(26) I don't have a driver's license. 我没有驾照。
(27) The boss doesn't look happy today. 老板今天看起来不高兴。
(28) The train didn't arrive on time. 火车没有按时到达。
18-6 [(EMPH-)NEG的作用域：全句否定 与 单词/短语否定] 扩充子N'T/NOT/n't/not有时有很大的作用域，可以包括一整个句子，有时作用域小到一个单词或短语。
句子(10)至(15)与句子(23)至(28)都是句子否定的例子, 以下(29)至(32)是单词/短语否定的例子。总的来说，单词/短语的否定是由(EMPH-)NEG加上 (i)accent重音, (ii)100% word单词, 或者 (iii)pause停顿造成的。
(i) <(EMPH-)NEG + 重音(Accent)>
(29)a. TOM didn't give her a cake. (Declerck, p.36)
汤姆没给她蛋糕。
b. Tom didn't
GIVE her a cake. 汤姆没给她蛋糕。
c. Tom didn't give HER a cake. 汤姆没给她蛋糕。
d. Tom didn't give her a CAKE. 汤姆没有给她蛋糕。
(ii) <(EMPH-)NEG + 100%单词(Word)>
(30) What the dictionary says is not
always correct.
字典上说的也不总是对的。
(31) Not
all water is good to drink. 不是所有的水都能喝。
(iii) <(EMPH-)NEG + 停顿(Pause)>
(32)a. You may
|not stay here. (Quirk, p.1110)
你可以不待在这儿。
b. You may not
|stay here.
你不可以留在这儿。
(29a), (30), (32a)的树形图： (33) (TOM didn't give her a cake)
NEG-S
／ ＼
EPD[NEG] S
(n't) ／ ＼
N V
／ ＼ (gave her a cake)
EPD[EMPH] N
(accent) (Tom)
(34) (What the dictionary says is not always correct)
S
／ ＼
N V
(what ...) ／ ＼
EPD[AGR] V
(PRS) ／ ＼
VZ A
(be) ／ ＼
AD A
／ ＼ (correct)
EPD[NEG] AD
(not) (always)
(35) (You may |not stay here)
S
／ ＼
N V
(you) ／ ＼
EPD[AGR] V
(PRS) ／ ＼
EPD[MOD] V
(may) ／ ＼
EPD[NEG] V
(not) (stay here)
18-7 [副词(AD)的作用域与否定扩充子(EMPH-)NEG的作用域]
作用域]
既然副词(AD)和否定扩充子(EMPH-NEG/NEG)都可以扩充句子(S)，那么当两者同时出现，作用域根据不同情况发生变化。
(36) A big typhoon is not coming soon. 大台风不会马上来。
(37) Reportedly a big typhoon is not coming. 据报道，大台风不会来。
在(36)中含有副词(AD)"soon"的句子(S)是"not"的作用域, 而(37)中含有否定扩充子"not"的句子是 "reportedly"的作用域。(36)和(37)的树形图：
(38) (A big typhoon is not coming soon)
NEG-S
／ ＼
EPD[NEG] K-S
(not) (A big typhoon is coming soon)
(39) (Reportedly a big typhoon is not coming)
NEG-S
／ ＼
ＡＤ NEG-S
(Reportedly) (A big typhoon is not coming)
但是，有时很难相互区别开。 (40)a. She definitely didn't speak to him. (Quirk, p.787)
她绝对没有跟他说。
b. Definitely she didn't speak to him. 绝对她没跟他说。
c. She didn't
definitely speak to him. 她绝对没跟他说。
句子(40a)既可以表示(40b)也可以表示(40c)。18-8 [极性(Polarity)]
一些特定的单词和词组永远带有否定扩充子如N'T/NOT/n't/not。
(i) Always with N'T/NOT/n't/not
(41)a.* John gave a red cent.
b. John didn't
give a red cent. 约翰没给一分钱
(42)a.* They will lift a finger for us.
b. They won't
lift a finger for us. 他们不会为我们做举手之劳。
(43)a.* You're a child any more.
b. You're not a child any more. 你不再是小孩子了。
其它一些永远不会和N'T/NOT/n't/not在一起出现。 (ii) Always without N'T/NOT/n't/not
(44)a.* It isn't
pretty late. (Quirk, p.778)
b. It's pretty late. 太晚了。
(45)a.* This cake isn't
delicious. (Mc, p.570)
b. This cake is delicious. 这蛋糕太好吃了。
18-9 [其它否定元素] 英语中还有一些其它否定元素。
(46)a. unhappy 不高兴
b. dishonest 不诚实
c. nonpolitical 非政治性的
(47)a. I have no friends. 我没有朋友。
b. I have no time. 我没有时间。
(48)a. I have few friends/*time. 我们什么朋友。
b. I have little time/*friends. 我没什么时间。
(49)a. We hardly eat chicken. 我几乎不吃鸡肉。
b. We rarely eat chicken. 我很少吃鸡肉。
c. We seldom eat chicken. 我不常吃鸡。
(50) I'll never forget this. 我永远不会忘记这个。
在本书中，句子(46)中划线部分被称作A EPD, 句子(47)和(48)中的被称作N EPD,在(49)中的被称作adverb(AD), 而在(50)中的"never"被称作S EPD {Negation否定}。24楼
yxliang007 发表于：2006-6-4 14:20:35???tough i can not fully apprehead this passage,thanks a lot.
25楼
backbak 发表于：2006-6-5 9:39:29第十九课 Yes/No疑问句：EMPH-Q-S/Q-S/INF-Q-S
19-1 [强调疑问句(EMPH-Q-S)]
一个核心句可以通过一个新的语法含义{Emphatic Question强调疑问句}扩充成另一个句子，在本书中被称为一个强调疑问句，即 emphatic question 或 EMPH-Q-S。
(1b)和(2b)的树形图：
扩充子EMPH-Q包含以下三个步骤。
就像强调否定句(EMPH-NEG-S)有它自己的非强调句(NEG-S)一样, 强调疑问句(EMPH-Q-S)也有自己的非强调句，我们称它为一个简单疑问句，即simple question 或 Q-S。
Q的操作
到目前，我们已经学习了EMPH-Q和Q的扩充子；他们扩展句子(S)。换句话说，这些元素的作用域是句子。
一些EMPH-Q/Q的扩充子不扩充整个句子，而是它的一部分。
核心句(K-S)可以通过NEG和Q被扩充。
在比较随便的语境下，我们可以使用非正式疑问句，即informal question(INF-Q-S) 。
一个核心句可以通过一个新的语法含义{Emphatic Question强调疑问句}扩充成另一个句子，在本书中被称为一个强调疑问句，即 emphatic question 或 EMPH-Q-S。
(1)a. John is a vegetarian. 约翰是个素食主义者。
b. IS John a vegetarian? 约翰真是个素食主义者吗？
(2)a. John likes onions. 约翰喜欢洋葱。
b. DOES John like onions? 约翰真喜欢洋葱吗？
强调疑问句(1b)和(2b)分别从核心句(1a)和(2a)生成出来。因此， (3) {Emphatic Question} + Kernel Sentence(K-S)
Emphatic Question(EMPH-Q-S)
如果我们把这个S EPD {Emphatic Question}称作EMPH-Q，那么(1b)和(2b)的生成过程应如下所示。 (4) EMPH-Q + K-S(John is a vegetarian.) [-DO Type型]
EMPH-Q-S(IS John a vegetarian?)
(5) EMPH-Q + K-S(John likes onions) [+DO Type型]
EMPH-Q-S(DOES John like onions?)
19-2 [树形图] (1b)和(2b)的树形图：
(i) -DO Type型
(6) (IS John a vegetarian?)
EMPH-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[EMPH-Q] K-S
(John is a vegetarian)
(ii) +DO Type型
(7) (DOES John like onions?)
EMPH-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[EMPH-Q] K-S
(John likes onions)
19-3 [EMPH-Q的操作] 扩充子EMPH-Q包含以下三个步骤。
<EMPH-Q>
步骤一：在核心句(K-S)上添加EMPH。
(Operator Specification扩充子的特定)
步骤二：把操作子移动到前面。(Q倒置，即Q inversion倒置)
步骤三：发音时有升/降音调；书写时有标点"?"。
(1b)和(2b)生成如下。 (8) EMPH-Q + [John is a vegetarian] [-DO Type型]
↓Step 1
[John IS a vegetarian]
↓Step 2
[IS John a vegetarian]
↓Step 3
[IS John a vegetarian?]
(9) EMPH-Q + [John likes onions] [+DO Type型]
↓Step 1
[John DOES like onions]
↓Step 2
[DOES John like onions]
↓Step 3
[DOES John like onions?]
其它例子： (i) -DO Type型
(10) IS everything going well? 一切确实发展顺利吗？
(11) CAN I count on your help? 我真的可以指望你的帮助吗？
(12) HAVE you ever been abroad? 你曾经出过国吗？
(ii) +DO Type型
(13) DO you feel well now? 你现在感觉好吗？
(14) DOES she often skip breakfast? 她真的经常不吃早饭吗？
(15) DID he repair his car by himself? 他确实自己修好的汽车吗？
19-4 [简单疑问句(Q-S)] 就像强调否定句(EMPH-NEG-S)有它自己的非强调句(NEG-S)一样, 强调疑问句(EMPH-Q-S)也有自己的非强调句，我们称它为一个简单疑问句，即simple question 或 Q-S。
(16)a. IS John a vegetarian? =(1b) [-DO Type型]
b. Is John a vegetarian? 她是素食主义者吗？
(17)a. DOES John like onions? =(2b) [+DO Type型]
b. Does John like onions? 约翰喜欢洋葱吗？
通过S EPD{Simple Question}或Q，核心句(K-S)转变成简单疑问句(Q-S)。(16b)和 (17b)的树形图： (18) (Is John a vegetarian?)
Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[Q] K-S
(John is a vegetarian)
(19) (Does John like onions?)
Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[Q] K-S
(John likes onions)
19-5 [Q的操作] Q的操作
<Q>
步骤一：添加EMPH-Q 到核心句(K-S)上。
步骤二：去除操作子重音。
让我看一看一个核心句(K-S)如何转变成强调疑问句(EMPH-Q-S)，并且如何转变成简单疑问句(Q-S)。 (i) -DO Type型
(20) Q + [John is a vegetarian]
↓ Step 1
[IS John a vegetarian?] (EMPH-Q-S)
↓ Step 2
[Is John a vegetarian?] (Q-S)
(ii) -DO Type型
(21) Q + [John likes onions]
↓ Step 1
[DOES John like onions?] (EMPH-Q-S)
↓ Step 2
[Does John like onions?] (Q-S)
其它例句： (i) -DO Type型
(22) Is everything going well? 一切进展好吗？
(23) Can I count on your help? 我能指望你的帮助吗？
(24) Have you ever been abroad? 你曾经出过国吗？
(ii) +DO Type型
(25) Do you feel well now? 你现在感觉好吗？
(26) Does she often skip breakfast? 她经常不吃早饭吗？
(27) Did he repair his car by himself? 他自己修好的汽车吗？
19-6 [(EMPH-)Q的作用域：全句否定 与 单词/短语否定] 到目前，我们已经学习了EMPH-Q和Q的扩充子；他们扩展句子(S)。换句话说，这些元素的作用域是句子。
一些EMPH-Q/Q的扩充子不扩充整个句子，而是它的一部分。
(28) Did John vote for SUSAN (not DEBBIE)?
约翰投票赞成苏珊(而不是黛比)了吗？
(29) Did JOHN (not JOE) vote for Susan?
约翰(而不是乔)投票赞成苏珊了吗？
(30) Did John vote FOR (not AGAINST) Susan?
约翰投票赞成(而不是反对)苏珊了吗？
19-7 [否定疑问句(NEG-Q-S)] 核心句(K-S)可以通过NEG和Q被扩充。
(31) Isn't John a vegetarian? 约翰不是素食主义者吗？
(32) Doesn't John like onions? 约翰不喜欢洋葱吗？
这些否定疑问句，即negative questions(NEG-Q-S) 生成如下。 (33) Q + NEG + [John is a vegetarian] [-DO Type型]
↓
Q + [John isn't a vegetarian]
↓
[Isn't John a vegetarian?]
(34) Q + NEG + [John likes onions] [+DO Type型]
↓
Q + [John doesn't like onions]
↓
[Doesn't John like onions?]
其它例句： (i) -DO Type型
(35) Isn't this upside down? 这不是颠倒了吗？
(36) Aren't you coming to the party? 你不来聚会吗？
(37) Can't she play the piano? 她不会弹钢琴吗？
(ii) +DO Type型
(38) Don't you know Mary the Cookies?
你不知道玛丽的绰号是“甜饼厨师”吗？
(39) Doesn't she wear a miniskirt?
她没穿迷你裙吗？
(40) Didn't it rain last night?
昨夜没下雨吗？
19-8 [非正式疑问句(INF-Q-S)] 在比较随便的语境下，我们可以使用非正式疑问句，即informal question(INF-Q-S) 。
(41) John is a vegetarian? 约翰是个素食主义者？
(42) John likes onions? 约翰喜欢洋葱？
使核心句(K-S)扩充成非正式疑问句(INF-Q-S)的是S EPD {Informal Question} 或者 INF-Q，因而， (43) INF-Q + [John is a vegetarian] [-DO Type型]
John is a vegetarian?
(44) INF-Q + [John likes onions] [+DO Type型]
John likes onions?
树形图: (45) (John is a vegetarian?) (46) (John likes onions?)
INF-Q-S INF-Q-S
／ ＼ ／ ＼
EPD[INF-Q] K-S EPD[INF-Q] K-S
(John is a vegetarian) (John likes onions)
扩充子{Informal Question}(INF-Q)可以扩充简单否定疑问句(NEG-Q)。 (47) INF-Q + [John isn't a vegetarian]
John isn't a vegetarian?
(48) INF-Q + [John doesn't like onions]
John doesn't like onions?
(47)和(48)的树形图分别如下。 (49) (John isn't a vegetarian?)
INF-Q-NEG-S
／ ＼
EPD[INF-Q] NEG-S
／ ＼
EPD[NEG] K-S
(n't) (John is a vegetarian)
(50) (John doesn't like onions?)
INF-Q-NEG-S
／ ＼
EPD[INF-Q] NEG-S
／ ＼
EPD[NEG] K-S
(n't) (John likes onions)
就像你想象的一样，强调句(EMPH-S)或强调否定句(EMPH-NEG-S)可以通过这个INF-Q被扩充。 (51) INF-Q + [John IS a vegetarian]
John IS a vegetarian?
(52) INF-Q + [John DOES like onions]
John DOES like onions?
(53) INF-Q + [John ISN'T a vegetarian]
John ISN'T a vegetarian?
(54) INF-Q + [John DOESN'T like onions]
John DOESN'T like onions?
因而，INF-Q仅有一个步骤。 <INF-Q>
步骤一：发音时音调上扬，书写时标出标点符号“？”。26楼
backbak 发表于：2006-6-5 9:42:18第二十课 短句
20-1 [简短回答]
总结一下目前所学内容，英语有四种问句(A1至A4)来问"John - PRS- be a vegetarian"是否正确。
有时候，只有"yes/no"和副词修饰短语，其它部分省略。
就像有简短回答一样，英语也有由反意疑问句生成的短问句。
这些反意疑问句有三种变化。
核心句(K-S)和反意疑问句(ECHO-Q-S)可以结合构成一个句子(S)。
其它例句：
英语中有所谓的非正式尾部informal tag。
其它一些尾部富有创造性：
总结一下目前所学内容，英语有四种问句(A1至A4)来问"John - PRS- be a vegetarian"是否正确。
(1) A1: John IS(is) a vegetarian? [-DO Type型]
约翰（真的）是素食主义者吗？
A2: John ISN'T(isn't) a vegetarian?
约翰（真的）不是素食主义者吗？
A3: IS(Is) John a vegetarian?
约翰（真的）是素食主义者吗？
A4: ISN'T(Isn't) John a vegetarian?
约翰（真的）不是素食主义者吗？
回答这些问句，用以下三种说法(B1至B3)任何一个都可以。 (2) B1: Yes./No.
是的。/不是。
B2: Yes, he IS(is)./No, he ISN'T(isn't).
是的，他（真的）是。/不，他（真的）不是。
B3: Yes, he IS(is) a vegetarian./No, he ISN'T(isn't) a vegetarian.
是的，他（真的）是素食主义者。/不，他（真的）不是
素食主义者。
(B2的最后一部分, "is"和"isn't"在句末发正常的音调，事
实上它们分别与 "IS" 和 "ISN'T" 一样。后文同理。)
上面，句子B1由句子B2转变而成, B2又由B3转变而成。换言之，法则三Equi Rule #3(cf.参考11-1) 在这里生成间隙，起了作用。 (3) B3: Yes, he IS(is) a vegetarian.
→ B2: Yes, he IS(is) ?.
→ B1: Yes ?.
(4) B3: No, he ISN'T(isn't) a vegetarian.
→ B2: No, he ISN'T(isn't) ?.
→ B1: No ?.
同理，问"John - PRS - like onions"是否正确，我们也有四种问句(A1至A4)。 (5) A1: John DOES like(likes) onions? [+DO Type型]
约翰（真的）喜欢洋葱吗？
A2: John DOESN'T(doesn't) like onions?
约翰（真的）不喜欢洋葱吗？
A3: DOES(Does) John like onions?
约翰（真的）喜欢洋葱吗？
A4: DOESN'T(Doesn't) John like onions?
约翰（真的）不喜欢洋葱吗？
回答应为， (6) B1: Yes ?.
B2: Yes, he DOES(does) ?.
(7) B1: No ?.
B2: No, he DOESN'T(doesn't) ?.
B3: No, he DOESN'T(doesn't) like onions.
在英语中，否定句永远不和"Yes"相接，而非否定句从来不和"No"相接。因而， (8)a. *No, ...IS(is)...
b. *No, ...DOES(does)...
(9)a. *Yes, ...ISN'T(isn't)...
b. *Yes, ...DOESN'T(doesn't)...
20-2 [条件简短回答] 有时候，只有"yes/no"和副词修饰短语，其它部分省略。
(10)a. In a sense, yes. 某种意义上， 是的。
b. Up to a point, yes. 某种观点上， 是的。
c. To my knowledge, yes. 以我所学知识来讲， 是的。
(11)a. Unfortunately, no. 不幸的是，不是。
b. Technically, no. 技术上来讲，不是。
(空格在这里被省略，下文在相同情况下同理。)
20-3 [反意疑问句(ECHO-Q-S)] 就像有简短回答一样，英语也有由反意疑问句生成的短问句。
(12) A : John is a vegetarian. [-DO Type型]
约翰是素食主义者。
B1: Is he?
真的？
B2: Is he a vegetarian?
他是素食主义者？
(13) A : John isn't a vegetarian.
约翰不是素食主义者。
B1: Isn't he?
真的？
B2: Isn't he a vegetarian?
他不是素食主义者？
(14) A : John likes onions. [+DO Type型]
约翰喜欢洋葱。
B1: Does he?
真的？
B2: Does he like onions?
他喜欢洋葱？
(15) A : John doesn't like onions.
约翰不喜欢洋葱。
B1: Doesn't he?
真的？
B2: Doesn't he like onions?
他不喜欢洋葱？
以上B1形式都是从B2形式缩短形成的。我们称它们为反意疑问句，即echo-question 或ECHO-Q-S。这些反意疑问句有三种变化。
(16)a. Is he?20-4 [尾部(tag): 非标准型与标准型]IS he?/He IS(is)? b. Isn't he?
核心句(K-S)和反意疑问句(ECHO-Q-S)可以结合构成一个句子(S)。
(i) <Substandard Tags非标准尾部>
(18) A: John is a vegetarian.
B: Is he?
→ John is a vegetarian, is he?
约翰是素食主义者，是吗？
(19) A: John isn't a vegetarian.
B: Isn't he?
→ John isn't a vegetarian, isn't he?
约翰不是素食主义者，是吗？
(20) A: John likes onions.
B: Does he?
→ John likes onions, does he?
约翰喜欢洋葱，是吗？
(21) A: John doesn't like onions.
B: Doesn't he?
→ John doesn't like onions, doesn't he?
约翰不喜欢洋葱，是吗？
(18)和(21)的划线部分叫做 “尾部” ，即tag。事实上，以上尾部均属于非标准类型尾部。更普通更标准的类型为： (22)a. John is a vegetarian, isn't he? 约翰是素食主义者，不是吗？
b. John isn't a vegetarian, is he? 约翰不是素食主义者，是吗？
(23)a. John likes onions, doesn't he? 约翰喜欢洋葱，不是吗？
b. John doesn't like onions, does he? 约翰不喜欢洋葱，是吗？
注意，当原句没有否定元素时，尾部包含否定元素，反之亦然。其它例句：
(ii) <Standard Tags标准尾部>
<-DO Type型>
(24)a. You're against the death penalty, aren't you?
你反对死刑，不是吗？
b. You aren't against the death penalty, are you?
你不反对死刑，是吗？
(25)a. Joe can play the guitar, can't he?
乔会弹吉他，不是吗？
b. Joe can't play the guitar, can he?
乔不会弹吉他，是吗？
(26)a. Bill has changed very much in 20 years, hasn't he?
比尔二十年来变化很大，不是吗？
b. Bill hasn't changed very much in 20 years, has he?
比尔二十年来变化不是很大，是吗？
<+DO Type型>
(27)a. They use an abacus when they count, don't they?
他们计算的时候用算盘，不是吗？
b. They don't use an abacus when they count, do they?
他们计算的时候不用算盘，是吗？
(28)a. Kathy always makes a fool of her husband, doesn't she?
凯西总是欺骗她丈夫，不是吗？
b. Kathy doesn't always make a fool of her husband, does she?
凯西不总是欺骗她丈夫，是吗？
(29)a. Your brother signed up for the tennis club, didn't he?
你弟弟签约网球俱乐部了，不是吗？
b. Your brother didn't sign up for the tennis club, did he?
你弟弟没有签约网球俱乐部，是吗？
20-5 [非正式尾部(tag)] 英语中有所谓的非正式尾部informal tag。
(30)a. John is a vegetarian, right? 约翰是素食主义者，对吗？
b. John likes onions, right? 约翰喜欢洋葱，对吗？
如果原句是否定句也是此形式。 (31)a. John isn't a vegetarian, right? 约翰不是素食主义者，对吗？
b. John doesn't like onions, right? 约翰不喜欢洋葱，对吗？
其它例子： (i) -DO Type型
(32)a. You're against the death penalty, right? 你反对死刑，对吗？
b. You aren't against the death penalty, right?
你不反对死刑，对吗？
(33)a. Joe can play the guitar, right? 乔会弹吉他，对吗？
b. Joe can't play the guitar, right? 乔不会弹吉他，对吗？
(34)a. Bill has changed very much in 20 years, right?
比尔二十年来变化很大，对吗？
b. Bill hasn't changed very much in 20 years, right?
比尔二十年来变化不大，对吗？
(ii) +DO Type型
(35)a. They use an abacus when they count, right?
他们计算时用算盘，对吗？
b. They don't use an abacus when they count, right?
他们计算时不用算盘，对吗？
(36)a. Kathy always makes a fool of her husband, right?
凯西总是欺骗她丈夫，对吗？
b. Kathy doesn't always make a fool of her husband, right?
凯西不总是欺骗她丈夫，对吗？
(37)a. Your brother signed up for the tennis club, right?
你弟弟签约网球俱乐部了，对吗？
b. Your brother didn't sign up for the tennis club, right?
你弟弟没签约网球俱乐部了，对吗？
20-6 [其它尾部] 其它一些尾部富有创造性：
(38) John hasn't washed the dishes, has the son of a 娃哈哈? (Mc, p.482)
约翰那臭小子没刷盘子，是不是？
(39) Open the door, won't/will you? 关上门，好吗？
(40) Turn on the light, will somebody or other? 关上灯，有人关吗？
(41) Let's play another game, shall we?
我们玩另一个游戏吧，怎么样？
(42) They forgot to attend the lecture, don't you think?
他们忘记上课了，你不这么认为吗？
(43) I suppose you're not serious, are you? (Quirk, p.811)
我想你不是认真的，是不是？
(44) He is unlikely to come, isn't he?
他可能不来，是不是？
27楼
backbak 发表于：2006-6-5 9:42:43第二十一课 WH系疑问句：WH-ECHO-Q-S/INF-WH-Q-S/WH-Q-S/等
21-1 [WH-回应疑问句(WH-ECHO-Q-S)]
当你错过一个句子某些重要部分时，你可能会像以下(2)中的问题(B1 至B5)那样问。
(3)至(7)的树形图：
这样，造一个WH-ECHO-Q-S：
当你错过了一些单词/短语，但你已知道他们是事物，人，地方，时间等，你可以用"what", "who(m)", "where", "when"等来询问，如下：
树形图:
一个非正式的wh-question(INF-WH-Q-S)不仅可以当句子某部分没听见时使用，也可以当一个句子一开始就不知道某部分时使用。(31)中的A就是一个例子。
更常见的是下列问句。
(36)和(37)的树形图：
当wh-word出现在核心句(K-S)的句首时，我们只用第一个步骤。
两个wh-words, "what"和"how",可以产生一个没有{WH-Q}意思的新句子，但有 {Exclamation感叹}的意思。
当你错过一个句子某些重要部分时，你可能会像以下(2)中的问题(B1 至B5)那样问。
(1) A : John lost his claim tag. 约翰把它的行李牌票了。
(2) B1: John lost his claim what? 约翰把他的什么丢了？
B2: John lost his what? 约翰把他的什么丢了？
B3: John lost what? 约翰把什么丢了？
B4: John what? 约翰什么？
B5: What? 约翰什么？
句子B1至B5通过用"what"替换没听到的部分而形成。 (Dadada 表示没有听到的部分。) (3) what + [John lost his claim dadada]
John lost his claim what? (B1)
(4) what + [John lost his dadada]
John lost his what? (B2)
(5) what + [John lost dadada]
John lost what? (B3)
(6) what + [John dadada]
John what? (B4)
(7) what + [Dadada]
What? (B5)
我们把这些通过S EPD{Wh-Echo-Question}(WH-ECHO-Q) 而形成的句子叫做WH-回应疑问句，即wh-echo-question(WH-ECHO-Q-S) 。因此， (8) WH-ECHO-Q + K-S(含 dadada)
WH-ECHO-Q-S(含 "what")
21-2 [树形图] (3)至(7)的树形图：
(9) (John lost his claim what?)
WH-ECHO-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[WH-ECHO-Q] K-S
(what) (John lost his claim dadada.)
(10) (John lost his what?)
WH-ECHO-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[WH-ECHO-Q] K-S
(what) (John lost his dadada.)
(11) (John lost what?)
WH-ECHO-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[WH-ECHO-Q] K-S
(what) (John lost dadada.)
(12) (John what?)
WH-ECHO-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[WH-ECHO-Q] K-S
(what) (John dadada.)
(13) (What?)
WH-ECHO-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[WH-ECHO-Q] K-S
(what) (Dadada.)
21-3 [WH-ECHO-Q的操作] 这样，造一个WH-ECHO-Q-S：
<WH-ECHO-Q>
步骤一：用"what"替换未听到的部分。
步骤二：在句尾提高音调（说话时）；在句尾添加符号“？”(书写时)。
通常，扩充子WH-ECHO-Q, "what"，看起来并不严格要求语法种类。 (14) A: Hanako's homesick. 花子想家了。
B: Hanako's home-what? 花子想什么家了？
然而，在以下例句中，它看起来确实在努力使自己符合语法。 (15) A: Astronomers have discovered some more black holes.
天文学家已经发现了更多的黑洞。
B: They've discovered some more whats? (Quirk, p.836)
他们已经发现了更多的什么？
(16) A: She sat there and ratiocinated.
她坐在那儿，推论着。
B: She sat there and whatted? (Quirk, p.836)
她坐在那儿，什么着？
在以下的WH-ECHO-Q, "what"中，看起来需要再加一个步骤，类似于"我--你转换"，即"I-You Switch"。 (17) A: I lost my claim tag. 我丢了我的行李票了。
B: You lost your what?/*I lost my what? 你丢了你的什么了？
(18) A: Mary hates this garment bag. 玛丽讨厌这个行李包。
B: Mary hates that what?/*Mary hates this what?
玛丽讨厌那个什么？
但是，要注意，(17 )和(18)的B句是从(19a)和(20a)分别转换过来的，而不是(19b) 和(20b)。 (19)a. You lost your dadada.
b. I lost my dadada.
(20)a. Mary hates that dadada.
b. Mary hates this dadada.
21-4 [非正式WH疑问句(INF-WH-Q-S)(i)] 当你错过了一些单词/短语，但你已知道他们是事物，人，地方，时间等，你可以用"what", "who(m)", "where", "when"等来询问，如下：
(21) A: I've eaten a slug. 我吃了一个鼻涕虫。
B: You've eaten what/*whom? 你吃了个什么？
(22) A: Mary hit John. 玛丽打了约翰。
B: Mary hit who(m)/*what? 玛丽打了谁？
(23) A: His plane was hijacked near Miami.
他的飞机在迈阿密附近被劫机了。
B: His plane was hijacked where/*when?
他的飞机在哪儿被劫机了？
(24) A: Napoleon was defeated in 1815.
拿破仑在1815年被打败了。
B: Napoleon was defeated when/*where?
拿破仑什么时候被打败了？
在(21)中, "what"替换了"something"。同样地，在(22)中,"whom"替换了"someone" ，在(23)中"where"替换了"somewhere", 而在(24)中"when"替换了 "sometime"。树形图:
(25) (You've eaten what?)
INF-WH-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[INF-WH-Q] K-S
(what) (You've eaten something)
(26) (Mary hit whom?)
INF-WH-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[INF-WH-Q] K-S
(whom) (Mary hit someone)
(27) (His plane was hijacked where?)
INF-WH-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[INF-WH-Q] K-S
(where) (His plane was hijacked somewhere)
(28) (Napoleon was defeated when?)
INF-WH-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[INF-WH-Q] K-S
(when) (Napoleon was defeated sometime)
在本书中，我们称这样的句子为非正式wh-疑问句，即informal wh-question(INF-WH-Q-S) ，并称如"what", "who(m)", "where", "when"等句子扩充子为S EPD{Informal Wh-Question}(INF-WH-Q) 。因而， <INF-WH-Q>
步骤一：用"what", "who(m)", "where", "when"等替换相应没听到的部分。
步骤二：在句尾提高音调（说话时）；在句尾添加符号“？”(书写时)
INF-WH-Q's相对应的“某单词/短语”（some-words/phrases）列表。
(29)a. what → something, etc.
b. who(m) → someone, etc.
c. whose → someone's, etc.
d. where → somewhere, etc.
e. when → sometime, etc.
f. why → for some reason, etc.
g. how → somehow, etc.
h. which → one or the other, etc.
i. how often → some times, etc.
21-5 [非正式WH疑问句(INF-WH-Q-S)(ii)] 。因而， <INF-WH-Q>
步骤一：用"what", "who(m)", "where", "when"等替换相应没听到的部分。
步骤二：在句尾提高音调（说话时）；在句尾添加符号“？”(书写时)
INF-WH-Q's相对应的“某单词/短语”（some-words/phrases）列表。
(29)a. what → something, etc.
b. who(m) → someone, etc.
c. whose → someone's, etc.
d. where → somewhere, etc.
e. when → sometime, etc.
f. why → for some reason, etc.
g. how → somehow, etc.
h. which → one or the other, etc.
i. how often → some times, etc.
21-5 [非正式WH疑问句(INF-WH-Q-S)(ii)] 一个非正式的wh-question(INF-WH-Q-S)不仅可以当句子某部分没听见时使用，也可以当一个句子一开始就不知道某部分时使用。(31)中的A就是一个例子。
(30) A: I lost my camera.
B: You lost what?
(31) A: So you lost what?
B: A camera.
(33)中的A也是同样的例子。 (32) A: I lost it in the subway.
B: You lost it where?
(33) A: So you lost it where?
B: Gee, I don't know.
(31A)和(33A)的意思分别与(30B)和(32B)相同。 (34) what + [You lost something]
You lost what?
(35) where + [You lost it somewhere]
You lost it where?
21-6 [WH疑问句(WH-Q-S)] 更常见的是下列问句。
(36) What did you lose? 你丢了什么了？
(37) Where did you lose it? 你在哪儿丢的？
我们称这些句子为wh-question(WH-Q-S) 和S EPD{Wh-Question}即WH-Q。(36)和(37)的树形图：
(38) (What did you lose ? ?)
WH-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[WH-Q] K-S
(what) (You lost something)
(39) (Where did you lose it ? ?)
WH-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[WH-Q} K-S
(where) (You lost it somewhere)
句子(36)和(37)生成过程如下。 (40) what + [You lost something]
↓ Step 1 (INF-WH-Q)
[You lost what?]
↓ Step 2 (Q)
[Did
you lose what?]
↓ Step 3 (Front Wh-Word)
[What did you lose ? ?]
(41) where + [You lost it somewhere]
↓ Step 1 (INF-WH-Q)
[You lost it where?]
↓ Step 2 (Q)
[Did
you lose it where?]
↓ Step 3 (Front Wh-Word)
[Where did you lose it ? ?]
其它例句： (42) Whom did they choose ? as president?
他们选谁当总统了？
(43) How much did you pay ? for such a lemon?
这样的一个瓜你付多少钱？
(44) When is she coming back ?? 她什么时候回来？
(45) Why did he think so ?? 他为什么会那样想？
21-7 [句首的Wh-Words] 当wh-word出现在核心句(K-S)的句首时，我们只用第一个步骤。
(46) What happened? 发生什么了？
(47) Who hit upon the idea first? 谁第一个想出这个主意的？
(46)和(47)生成过程如下。 (48) what + [Something happened]
↓ Step 1: INF-WH-Q
[What happened?]
(49) who + [Someone hit upon the idea first]
↓ Step 1: INF-WH-Q
[Who hit upon the idea first?]
其它例句： (50) What seems to be the problem? 看起来是什么问题？
(51) Who invented the cotton gin? 谁发明的轧棉机？
最后，扩充子WH-Q引起以下几个步骤。 <WH-Q>
步骤一：把INF-WH-Q加到核心句上，包括some-word。
步骤二：添加Q，但只有当wh-word 不在句首的时候方可。
步骤三：把wh-word放在前面。(
出现)
21-8 [WH感叹句(WH-EXCL-S)] 参考25-8两个wh-words, "what"和"how",可以产生一个没有{WH-Q}意思的新句子，但有 {Exclamation感叹}的意思。
(52) What a cold day it was! 多么冷的天气啊！
(53) How happy she is! 她多高兴啊！
我们称这些句子为wh-exclamation 或者 WH-EXCL-S。这些句子通过S EPD {Wh-Exclamation} 或 WH-EXCL由带有"very"的核心句生成。 (54) what + [It was a very cold day]
What a cold day it was!
(55) how + [She is very happy]
How happy she is!
(52)和(53)的树形图： (56) (What a cold day it was!)
WH-EXCL-S
／ ＼
EPD[WH-EXCL] K-S
(what) (It was a very cold day)
(57) (How happy she is!)
WH-EXCL-S
／ ＼
EPD[WH-EXCL] K-S
(how) (She is very happy)
28楼
backbak 发表于：2006-6-5 9:43:05第二十二课 V-N扩充子(V-N CVT)："to", "-ing"等
22-1 [V-N扩充子(V-N CVT)："to"]
一个带有"to"的动词(V)可以具有名词(N)的功能。
当一个名词短语"to V"太长的时候，我们更喜欢用"it"来代替, 如下(9b)的形式。
N的场合:to have Ven,
not to V, 等。]
not to V, 等。]
一个复杂的扩充动词可以通过"to"被转换成一个名词(N)。
有时候，动词(V)可以通过带有wh-word的转换子"to"被转换成名词(N)。
A]
当你想在名词(N) "to V"上添加{Agent}或{Theme}的意思时, 你可以使用"for N"形式, 它是由名词(N)转换成的(A)。 参考22-11(N'sA)
其它例句：
+ N + toV]
在一些像 "want"和"expect"的动词化子(VZs)的后面，"for"总是被删除。
" (参考8-6)
树形图:
+ N + + V]
在一些像"make", "let", "see", "hear"和"feel"一样的动词化子(VZs)后，"for"和"to"都省略。
22-8 [V-N转换子(V-N CVT): "-ing"]
像在(49a)中，转换子"to", "-ing"也可以使动词(V)变成名词(N)。
比较下面两个划线部分。
比较两个树形图：
N:being Ven,
having Ven, 等]
having Ven, 等]
一个复杂扩充动词也可以通过转换子"-ing"转换成一个名词(N)。
A]
当你想在名词"Ving"上加上{Agent}或{Theme}的意思时，可以使用"N's"的形式，它是由名词(N)生成的形容词(A)。 参考 22-5(for＋NA)
22-12 [N's Ving 与 N Ving]
对比以下两划线部分。
"和 (N) "John"组成形容词(A), 而在(73b)中的"John"是被一个形容词短语"smoking in my room"(参考 24-4中的V-A CVT "-ing")跟着的一个名词(N)。换句话说, 在(71a)中"I"不介意的是"smoking in my room"的行为, 而在(71b)中则是人"John"。
22-13 [to + VN 与 V + -ing N]
"to V"和"Ving"都可以是一个(N)。然而，一些动词化子(VZs)只位于"to V"前面，而另一些只位于"Ving"前面, 但也有许多既可以位于"to V"前面也可以位于"Ving"前面。
一个带有"to"的动词(V)可以具有名词(N)的功能。
(1)a. To watch wild birds is my hobby. 观看野鸟是我的爱好。
b. Art is my hobby. 艺术是我的爱好。
(1a)中的划线部分"to watch wild birds",语法上可以和(1b)中的名词(N) "art"互换。既然"watch wild birds"是动词(V)，而"to watch wild birds"是名词(N), 可以说动词(V)可以通过转换子"to"转换成名词(N)。换言之，(2) to + V在本书中，我们称这种转换子为verb-noun convertor(V-N CVT) , "to"。(1a)中的划线部分树形图如下：
(3) (to watch wild birds)
N
／ ＼
CVT[V-N] V
(to) (watch wild birds)
新产生的名词(N)，更准确地说，一个名词短语，通常可以在名词的位置出现。 (4) Dogs like to bury bones. 豿喜欢把骨头埋起来。
(5) The most important thing is not to win, but to take part.
最重要的不是获胜，而是参与。
(6) Our plan is to get there early and have lunch.
我们的计划是早些到那儿，然后吃午饭。
(7) To know is one thing, to teach another.
知道是一回事儿，讲授是另一回事儿。
(8) We had no choice but to give up the plan.
我没有选择只有放弃计划。
22-2 [形式语"it"] 当一个名词短语"to V"太长的时候，我们更喜欢用"it"来代替, 如下(9b)的形式。
(9)a. To talk frankly is not always good. (opt.可选择)
b. It is not always good to talk frankly.
说话直率不总是好的。
其它例子： (10) It's expensive to live in a big city. 住在大城市很贵。
(11) It's our custom to get together once a year.
每年一次的聚会是我们的习惯。
(12) It took me a long time to solve this problem.
解决这个问题花了我很长时间。
有时候，使用形式语"it"是必须的。 (13)a. I thought it better to talk frankly. (obl.必须的)
我认为最好坦白地说。
b. *I thought to talk frankly better.
22-3 ["to" +动词(V)的复杂扩充形 N的场合:to have Ven, not to V, 等。]
not to V, 等。]
一个复杂的扩充动词可以通过"to"被转换成一个名词(N)。
(14) The poor hate to be pitied by the rich.
穷人憎恨被富人怜悯。
(15) I want to be sitting in the woods, listening to a nightingale.
我想坐在树林里，听夜莺的声音。
(16) It's a mistake to have left a little child alone.
把小孩子一个人留下自己离去是不对的。
(17) He told us not to be late.
他们警告我们不要迟到。
(14)中划线部分的树形图为： (18) (to be pitied ?)
N
／ ＼
CVT[V-N] V
(to) ／ ＼
EPD[PASS] V
(be-en) (pity the poor)
(17)中划线部分的树形图为： (19) (not to be late)
N
／ ＼
CVT[V-N] V
(to) ／ ＼
EPD[NEG] V
(not) (be late)
记住，不是所有动词扩充子的组合都可以通过转换子"to"被转换成一个名词(N)。例如，转换子"to"不能和含有MOD的动词短语一起使用。 (20)a. *to will go
b. *to may come
22-4 [V-N转换子(V-N CVT): "how to",等] 有时候，动词(V)可以通过带有wh-word的转换子"to"被转换成名词(N)。
(21) The problem was how to make a fire.
问题是如何生火。
(21)中的划线部分是由动词"make a fire somehow"通过verb-noun convertor(V-N CVT) "how to" 生成的，如下(22)。 (22) how to + [make a fire somehow]
↓ Step 1: Substitute the wh-word to some-word.
to + [make a fire how]
↓ Step 2: Move the wh-word to the front.
↓ (? comes out)
[how to make a fire ?]
树形图： (23) (how to make a fire ?)
N
／ ＼
CVT[V-N] V
(how to) (make a fire somehow)
其它例句： (24) I didn't know what to do next. 我不知道下一步做什么。
(25) I didn't know when to stop it. 我不知道什么时候停止。
(26) I didn't know where to go first. 我不知道先从哪儿出发。
(27) I didn't know which to take. 我不知道拿哪一个。
22-5 [for＋N A] 当你想在名词(N) "to V"上添加{Agent}或{Theme}的意思时, 你可以使用"for N"形式, 它是由名词(N)转换成的(A)。 参考22-11(N's
A) (28) It is very hard for a high school dropout to get a job.
高中退学的人很难找到工作。
树形图： (29) (for a high school dropout to get a job)
N
／ ＼
A N
／ ＼ ／ ＼
CVT[N-A] N CVT[V-N] V
(for) (a h.s.d.) (to) (get a job)
其它例句。 (30) For the working class to own a car was something unbelievable
before the war.
在战前，工人阶级拥有汽车是难以置信的事情。
(31) What I want is for you to go there yourself.
我想要的是你自己去那儿。
(32) It is impossible for there to be any animal on the moon. cf.23-9
月球上有任何动物是不可能的。 参考23-9
在以下例句中，Equi Rule #3起作用，"for N"被删除。 (33)a. *I like for me to sing in the bathtub.
b. I like to sing in the bathtub. 我喜欢在浴缸里唱歌。
注意，在(33)中，"like"和"sing in the bathtub"两个动作的施动者是同一个人。在 (33a)中，Equi Rule #3没有被使用，而在(33b)中则使用了该法则。 (33a)中的"me" 首先由于Equi Rule #3而被删除了，然后，转换子"for"由于不需要转换任何东西，而自行消失了。其它例句：
(34)a. *I told him for him to come back soon.
b. I told him to come back soon. 我让他马上回来。
(35)a. *I promised him for me to come back soon.
b. I promised him to come back soon. 我答应他马上回来。
22-6 [VZ ++ N + toV] 在一些像 "want"和"expect"的动词化子(VZs)的后面，"for"总是被删除。
(36) I want you to come back soon. 我想让你快点回来。另一方面，没有"for"意味着增添了OM-NI转换子"
" (参考8-6)树形图:
(37) (want ? you to come back soon)
V
／ ＼
VZ N
(want) ／ ＼
A N
／ ＼ ／ ＼
CVT[OM-NI] N CVT[V-N] V
(?) (you) (to) (come back soon)
其它例句： (38) I forced him to go there. 我强迫他去那儿。
(39) I believed him to be innocent. 我相信他是清白的。
(40) I don't want you to be laughed at by anyone.
我不想让你被任何人嘲笑。
(41) I'd advise you not to invite her. 我建议你不要邀请她。
22-7 [VZ + + N + + V] 在一些像"make", "let", "see", "hear"和"feel"一样的动词化子(VZs)后，"for"和"to"都省略。
(42)a. *I made for him to go.
b. *I made him to go.
c. I made him go.
我让他走。
(42c)的动词短语的树形图： (43) (made ? him ? go)
V
／ ＼
VZ N
(made) ／ ＼
A N
／ ＼ ／ ＼
CVT[OM-NI] N CVT[OM-NI] V
(?) (him) (?) (go)
其它例句： (44) Please let me do that. 请让我做吧。
(45) I saw him walk across the road. 我看见他走过马路。
(46) We heard something fall onto the floor with a thud.
我听到有东西砰的一声掉到地上。
(47) I felt something cold touch me on the shoulder.
我感觉有什么凉的东西碰到我的肩膀上。
(48) We were all listening to the teacher read the textbook.
我们在听老师读课本。
在22-5中"for N"被删除，我们可以解释是因为运用Equi Rule #3来避免不必要的重复。然而， 22-6中的"for"和22-7中的"for-to"为什么被删除有些令人迷惑；看起来是无法说明的。22-8 [V-N转换子(V-N CVT): "-ing"]
像在(49a)中，转换子"to", "-ing"也可以使动词(V)变成名词(N)。
(49)a. I like watching wild birds. 我喜欢观看野鸟。
b. I like wild birds. 我喜欢野鸟。
规则是：(50) V + -ing我们称这个转换子为verb-noun convertor(V-N CVT), "-ing"。(49a)中划线部分的树形图如下：
(51) (watching wild birds)
N
／ ＼
CVT[V-N] V
(-ing) (watch wild birds)
其它例子。 (52) They enjoyed playing tag. 他们喜欢玩捉迷藏的游戏。
(53) Shaking hands is an old custom. 握手是很老的传统。
(54) I'm looking forward to seeing you again. 我盼望着再见到你。
(55) How about taking a coffee break for a while.
喝杯咖啡休息一会儿怎么样？
(56) On leaving school, he went into business. 离开学校，他从商了。
22-9 [不明确的Ving形 (i)] 参考24-5比较下面两个划线部分。
(57)a. My hobby is collecting stamps. 我的爱好是收集邮票。
b. My brother is collecting stamps. 我的兄弟正在收集邮票。
前者来自动词"collect stamps"加上一个V-N CVT "-ing", 而后者来自同一个动词 "collect stamps"加上一个V EPD{Progressive进行} "be-ing"。比较两个树形图：
(58) (collecting stamps)
N
／ ＼
CVT[V-N] V
(-ing) (collect stamps)
(59) ((is) collecting stamps)
V
／ ＼
EPD[PROG] V
(be-ing) (collect stamps)
22-10 ["-ing"+动词(V)的复杂扩充形 N:being Ven, having Ven, 等]
having Ven, 等]
一个复杂扩充动词也可以通过转换子"-ing"转换成一个名词(N)。
(60) I knew for the first time the happiness of loving and
being loved.
我第一次知道爱与被爱的幸福。
(61) Not dressing warmly in winter can result in catching a
bad cold.
冬天穿的不暖和可能会引起重感冒。
(62) Jane's ashamed of having broken her promise again.
简对于再次食言感到很惭愧。
(63) I can't stand being laughed at.
我不能忍受被嘲笑。
(64) He regretted not having been a good son.
他为没有一个好儿子而感到遗憾。
(65) He is very proud of having been educated in England.
他对在英格兰受过教育感到很自豪。
(60)中划线部分的树形图： (66) (being loved ? )
N
／ ＼
CVT[V-N] V
(-ing) ／ ＼
EPD[PASS] V
(be-en) (love me)
22-11 [N+'s A] 当你想在名词"Ving"上加上{Agent}或{Theme}的意思时，可以使用"N's"的形式，它是由名词(N)生成的形容词(A)。 参考 22-5(for＋N
A) (67) I'm proud of my son's attending a good school.
我很自豪我的儿子在一所好学校上学。
(67)中的划线部分的树形图： (68) (my son's attending a good school)
N
／ ＼
A N
／ ＼ ／ ＼
CVT[N-A] N CVT[V-N] V
(-'s) (my son) (-ing) (attend a good school)
在以下两个例子中，(69a)中重复的"my"是不合语法的，而后面的(69b)没有"my"才是合语法的。 (69)a. *I'm proud of my attending a good school.
b. I'm proud of ? attending a good school.
(69b)中相关部分的树形图如下： (70) ( ? attending a good school)
N
／ ＼
A N
／ ＼ ／ ＼
CVT[N-A] N CVT[V-N] V
(-'s→?) (I→?) (-ing) (attend a good school)
Equi Rule #3的应用导致首先"I "的删除，然后是"-'s"的删除。22-12 [N's Ving 与 N Ving]
对比以下两划线部分。
(71)a. I don't mind John's smoking in my room.
b. I don't mind John smoking in my room.
(71a)中的划线部分的树形图很容易画出： (72) (John's smoking in my room)
N
／ ＼
A N
／ ＼ ／ ＼
CVT[N-A] N CVT[V-N] V
(-'s) (John) (-ing) (smoke in my room)
然而，(71b)中的相关部分看起来有两种结构并且有两种意思。其中一个可能的结构为： (73)a. (John smoking in my room)
N
／ ＼
A N
／ ＼ ／ ＼
CVT[OM-NI] N CVT[V-N] V
(?) (John) (-ing) (smoke in my room)
另一个可能的结构为： (73)b. (John smoking in my room)
N
／ ＼
N A
(John) ／ ＼
CVT[V-A] V
(-ing) (smoke in my room)
在(73a)中， "John"是一个由OM-NI CVT ""和 (N) "John"组成形容词(A), 而在(73b)中的"John"是被一个形容词短语"smoking in my room"(参考 24-4中的V-A CVT "-ing")跟着的一个名词(N)。换句话说, 在(71a)中"I"不介意的是"smoking in my room"的行为, 而在(71b)中则是人"John"。22-13 [to + V
N 与 V + -ing N] "to V"和"Ving"都可以是一个(N)。然而，一些动词化子(VZs)只位于"to V"前面，而另一些只位于"Ving"前面, 但也有许多既可以位于"to V"前面也可以位于"Ving"前面。
(i) 动词化子(VZs) 只位于"to V"前面的情况
(74)a. He tends to boast. 他想自夸。
b. *He tends boasting.
(75)a. She wished to go to college. 她希望上大学。
b. *She wished going to college.
(76)a. The president expects to attend the meeting.
那位总统期待出席那个会议。
b. *The president expects attending the meeting.
(ii)动词化子(VZs)只位于"Ving"前面的情况
(77)a. I enjoyed skiing. 我喜欢滑雪。
b. *I enjoyed to ski.
(78)a. Looks like she avoids seeing me. 看起来她想避开我。
b. *Looks like she avoids to see me.
(79)a. We all finished reading the book. 我们都读完那本书了。
b. *We all finished to read the book.
(iii) 动词化子(VZs)可以位于"to V"和"Ving"的情况
(80)a. I intend to quit my job.
b. I intend quitting my job.
我想辞掉工作。
(81)a. Dad likes to sleep late on Sundays.
b. Dad likes sleeping late on Sundays.
父亲喜欢在星期天晚起。
(82)a. I don't bother to do such a thing.
b. I don't bother doing such a thing.
我不是故意想这么做的。
一些语言学家认为，在(iii)中，"to V"通常有{Future将来}或者{Incomplete未完成}的意思，而"Ving"则有{Present现在/Past过去}或者{Complete完成}的意思。 (83)a. I forgot to lock at the door. 我忘记锁门了。
b. I forgot locking at the door. 我忘记锁没锁门了。
(84)a. He tried to write to her, but he couldn't.
他想给她写信，但是他写不了。
b. He tried writing to her, but she did not reply.
他试着给她写信，但是她没有回复。
然而，有许多例子不支持这个分析。29楼
backbak 发表于：2006-6-12 9:58:15第二十三课 V-AD转换子(V-AD CVT): "to", "-ing",等
23-1 [V-AD转换子(V-AD CVT): "to"]
带有"to"的动词(V)可以有副词(AD)的功能。
其规则为：
动词-副词转换子(V-AD CVT), "to", 可以有不同的词汇意思以及转换的语法功能。
AD的场合: to have Ven,
not to V, 等]
not to V, 等]
一个复杂的扩充动词可以通过"to"转变成一个副词。
AD] 参考22-5(for + N A)
比较下面两个句子。
树形图:
像转换子"to"一样, "-ing"可以附在动词(V)上使之成为副词(AD)，如在(23a)中。
动词-副词转换子(V-AD CVT) "-ing"有多种词汇意思，如同它有多种转换的语法功能一样。
ＡＤ的场合：
being Ｖen, having Ｖen,等]
being Ｖen, having Ｖen,等]
就像"to"的情况一样，一个复杂的扩充动词可以通过动词-副词转换子(V-AD CVT), "-ing"被转换成一个副词(AD)。
"N's Ving"的组合不能成为副词(AD), 因为"N's"不是副词。如果你想在状语" Ving"上添加{Agent}或{Theme}的意思，, 你就必须用"with N"，如(44b).
，如在(47)中。
在下面，"there"被当作名词(N)。
下面(51)中的另一个转换子"when"被添加来确定"-ing"的词汇意思。
AD 与 V + -ing AD]
状语"to V"和状语"Ving"在分配上通常是互补的。
带有"to"的动词(V)可以有副词(AD)的功能。
(1) We went to 7-eleven to buy some ice cream.
我们去7-eleven便利店去买冰激凌。
这是一个转换的例子，因为(1)中的划线部分是由转换子"to"和动词"buy some ice cream"组成的。其规则为：
(2) to + V我们称这类转换子为一个verb-adverb convertor(V-AD CVT), "to"。例句(1)中相关部分的树形图为：
(3) (to buy some ice cream)
AD
／ ＼
CVT[V-AD] V
(to) (buy some ice cream)
23-2 [V-AD转换子（V-AD CVT） to 的含义] 动词-副词转换子(V-AD CVT), "to", 可以有不同的词汇意思以及转换的语法功能。
(i) Purpose 目的
(4) You need a visa to go to that country.
你需要一个签证去那个国家。
(5) I'm here to meet you.
我在这儿见你。
(ii) Cause/Reason 原因
(6) He was surprised to hear the news.
他听到那个消息很惊讶。
(7) I'm very glad to meet you.
我非常高兴见到你。
(iii) Base of Judgment 判断的依据
(8) He must be very rich to have such a big jet.
他一定很富有而拥有这么大的喷气式飞机。
(9) How careless you were to take the wrong train!
你太马虎了，乘错了火车。
(iv) Result 结果
(10) My grandpa lived to be ninety.
我的爷爷活到九十岁。
(11) The police rushed into the room only to find it vacant.
警察冲进房间仅仅发现它是空的。
(v) Condition 条件
(12) He will get angry to hear such a thing.
他听到这样的事会生气的。
(13) To tell the truth, I'm thinking of quitting my job.
实话实说，我想辞掉工作。
23-3 ["to" +动词(Ｖ)的复杂扩充形AD的场合: to have Ven,not to V, 等]
not to V, 等]
一个复杂的扩充动词可以通过"to"转变成一个副词。
(14) I'm sorry to have kept you waiting.
很抱歉让你等待。
(15) What did you do to be hated like that?
你做什么了被如此仇恨？
(14)中划线部分的树形图： (16) (to have kept you waiting)
AD
／ ＼
CVT[V-AD] V
(to) ／ ＼
EPD[PERF] V
(have-en) (keep you waiting)
一些紧跟"hope", "expect", "mean", "intend", "wish"等词过去式(PST)的"to have Ven"组合，并没有{Past过去}或{Perfective完成}的意思；它们的意思是{Subjunctive虚拟语气}。 参考 26-6 (17)a. He hoped to have come.
他希望已经回来了。
b. = He hoped to come, but couldn't.
他希望回来，但没回来。
(18)a. She intended to have attended the meeting.
她打算参加那个会议。
b. = She intended to attend the meeting, but didn't.
她打算参加那个会议，但没有。
23-4 [for + N AD] 参考22-5(for + N A)比较下面两个句子。
(19)a. She opened the door for him to go out.
b. = She opened the door that he might go out.
她打开门让他可以出去。
(19a)和(19b)中的划线部分都是副词(ADs)，并且有同样的意思。(19a)中的划线部分是由两个转换："for + him"和"to + go out"组合的结果。树形图:
(20) (for him to go out)
AD
／ ＼
AD AD
／ ＼ ／ ＼
CVT[N-AD] N CVT[V-AD] V
(for) (him) (to) (go out)
其它例句: (21) For education to be improved we must have efficient
organization.
为了改进教育，我们必须有有效率的组织。
(22) The brand-new car was changed for the sumo-wrestler to
be able to get in and out of it easily.
这种新车是为了方便相扑选手进出方便而改良的。
23-5 [V-AD转换子(V-AD CVT): "-ing"] 像转换子"to"一样, "-ing"可以附在动词(V)上使之成为副词(AD)，如在(23a)中。
(23)a. Seeing him, she ran away.
b. = When she saw him, she ran away.
看到他，她就跑开了。
公式为:(24) V + -ing我们称这种转换子为verb-adverb convertor(V-AD CVT), "-ing"。(23a)中划线部分的树形图为：
(25) (seeing him)
AD
／ ＼
CVT[V-AD] V
(-ing) (see him)
23-6 [V-AD转换子（V-AD CVT）-ing 的含义] 动词-副词转换子(V-AD CVT) "-ing"有多种词汇意思，如同它有多种转换的语法功能一样。
(i) Incidental State 伴随状态
(26) The young couple stood ashore looking at the sunset.
那对年轻夫妇坐在岸边观看日落。
(27) The audience sat quietly, waiting for the show to begin.
观众静静地坐着，等待演出开始。
(ii) Time 时间
(28) Doing the dishes, John hit on a good idea.
刷着盘子，约翰突然想出了一个好主意。
(29) I was caught cheating in the English exam.
我在英语考试中作弊被抓到了。
(iii) Cause/Reason 原因
(30) Having no money, I can't go with you.
因为没有钱，我不能和你去。
(31) Being young, he was very energetic.
因为年轻，他精力充沛。
(iv) Condition 条件
(32) Turning left, you'll see a big overpass.
向左转，你会看见一个很大的天桥。
(33) Judging from his appearance, he didn't pass.
从他的表情判断，他没及格。
(34) He is doing rather well, considering his age.
考虑到他的年龄，他做得相当好了。
(v) Concession 让步
(35) Admitting what you say, I still think you are mistaken.
我承认你所说的，但我仍然认为你是错的。
(36) Granting that he was drunk, that is no excuse for his
rudeness.
承认他醉了，但那不是他无理的理由。
23-7 [-ing + 动词(Ｖ)的复杂扩充形 ＡＤ的场合：being Ｖen, having Ｖen,等]
being Ｖen, having Ｖen,等]
就像"to"的情况一样，一个复杂的扩充动词可以通过动词-副词转换子(V-AD CVT), "-ing"被转换成一个副词(AD)。
(37)a. (Being) Written in simple English, the book is easy
to read.
b. = As it is written in simple English, the book is easy
to read.
这本书用简单的英语写成，很容易读。
(37a)中的划线部分的树形图为： (38) ((Being) Written ?)
AD
／ ＼
CVT[V-AD] V
(-ing) ／ ＼
EPD[PASS] V
(be-en) (write the book)
其它例子。 (39) (Being) Tired, I soon fell asleep.
我累了，不久就睡着了。
(40) Given the radius, you can find the circumference.
给出半径，你就可以算出圆周。
(41) Having finished dinner, we began to play cards.
吃完晚饭，我们开始玩牌。
(42) Not knowing what to say, he remained silent.
不知道说什么，他保持沉默。
(43) Having been weakened by successive storms, the bridge
was no longer safe.
不断地被暴风雨削弱，那座桥不再安全了。
23-8 [(with) N + Ving] "N's Ving"的组合不能成为副词(AD), 因为"N's"不是副词。如果你想在状语" Ving"上添加{Agent}或{Theme}的意思，, 你就必须用"with N"，如(44b).
(44)a. *Mary's being away at school, I don't have to stay at
home.
b. With Mary being away at school, I don't have to stay
at home.
玛丽在学校，我不用非得待在家里。
(44b)中划线部分的树形图： (45) (with Mary being away at school)
AD
／ ＼
AD AD
／ ＼ ／ ＼
CVT[N-AD] N CVT[V-AD] V
(with) (Mary) (-ing) (be away at school)
(44b)中划线部分也可以用不同的方式来分析；N-AD CVT "with"加上名词短语"Mary being away at school"的组合。 按照这种分析，(44b)的树形图应为: (46) (with Mary being away at school)
AD
／ ＼
CVT[N-AD] N
(with) ／ ＼
N A
(Mary) ／ ＼
CVT[V-A] V
(-ing) (be away at school)
有时候，(44b)中的"with"变成，如在(47)中。(47) Mary being away at school, I don't have to stay at home.(47)的树形图可以是(48)或者(49)。
(48) (? Mary being away at school)
AD
／ ＼
AD AD
／ ＼ ／ ＼
CVT[OM-NI] N CVT[V-AD] V
(?) (Mary) (-ing) (be away at school)
(49) (? Mary being away at school)
AD
／ ＼
CVT[OM-NI] N
(?) ／ ＼
N A
(Mary) ／ ＼
CVT[V-A] V
(-ing) (be away at school)
23-9 [作为名词(N) "there"] 在下面，"there"被当作名词(N)。
(50)a. There being a fork in the road, we lost the way.
b. There a fork in the road, we lost the way.
c. With there being a fork in the road, we lost the way.
路上有岔口，我们迷路了。
23-10 [when/while Ving] 下面(51)中的另一个转换子"when"被添加来确定"-ing"的词汇意思。
(51) When hunting, a snake is very careful.
在猎食时，蛇非常小心。
相似地， (52) While traveling abroad, you often run across people who
stimulate your imagination.
当在国外旅行时，你经常会碰见能刺激你想象的人们。
然而， (53) Though *being/? poor, they were happy.
虽然贫穷，但是他们很开心。
(54) Whether *being/? rich or poor, all people have to work.
无论富人还是穷人，所有的人都不得不工作。
23-11 [to + V AD 与 V + -ing AD] 状语"to V"和状语"Ving"在分配上通常是互补的。
(55)a. *To have no money, I can't go with you.
b. Having no money, I can't go with you.
因为没有钱，我不能跟你走。
(56)a. *Mary is busy to prepare for the exam.
b. Mary is busy preparing for the exam.
玛丽在忙着准备考试。
(57)a. He was surprised to hear the news.
他听到新闻很惊讶。
b. *He was surprised hearing the news.
通常，两种分配的意思为： (i) <Meanings of the V-AD CVT "to" 的意思>
Purpose 目的, Cause/Reason 原因, Base of judgement 判断的依据,
Result 结果, Condition 条件
(ii) <Meanings of the V-AD CVT "-ing" 的意思>
Incidental State 伴随状态, Time 时间, Cause/Reason 原因,
Condition 条件, Concession 让步30楼
backbak 发表于：2006-6-12 9:58:36第二十四课 V-A转换子(V-A CVT):"to", "-ing"
24-1 [V-A转换子(V-A CVT):"to"]
一个带有"to"的动词(V), 经常可以作为形容词(A)使用，如(1a)中的划线部分。
公式为：
(1a)中的划线部分的树形图为：
。
因此，上述句子(4a)严格地表示应如句子(5)。
何时并如何产生呢？当"to V"里的名词和它前面的名词(N)相同时，产生，通过运用法则Equi Rule #3, 产生。
在(1a)中, "to look after him"中的名词"him"和在它前面的名词"a large family" 是不一样的，而在(4a)中，两个名词("to"前面隐蔽的"a large family"和"look after"后隐蔽的"a large family")是相同的。换言之，在(1a)中没有多余的东西，而在(4a)则有多余。这正是一个Equi Rule #3的例子。
动词-名词转换子"to"或者动词-副词转换子"to"都不能产生。 这个功能只属于动词-形容词转换子 "to"。
其它例子:
Ａ的场合：
to be Ｖing，to have Ven,等]
to be Ｖing，to have Ven,等]
一个复杂扩充动词可以通过转换子"to"被转变成形容词(A)。
AD]
当你想在形容词(A) "to V"上增加{Agent}或{Theme}的意思时，你可以用"for N"的形式。(参考 22-5, 23-4)
(17)中划线部分的树形图：
像转换子"to"一样， "-ing"也可以附在动词(V)上构成形容词(A)，如(20a)：
对比以下两句。
树形图：
比较下列句子。
肯定的是，(31c)中的"left"包括{Passive被动}和形容词(A)的功能。因此它的树形图为
A 与 V + -ing A]
任何动词都可以通过"to"或"-ing"变成形容词，但依情况不同会稍微产生新的意思。
一个带有"to"的动词(V), 经常可以作为形容词(A)使用，如(1a)中的划线部分。
(1)a. John has a large family to look after him.
b. = John has a large family who could look after him.
约翰有一个能照顾他的大家庭。
在(1a)中的划线部分，我们观察到动词"look after him"通过转换子"to"的转换过程。公式为：
(2) to + V在本书中，我们把动词(V)转换成形容词(A)的转换子"to"称作verb-adjective convertor(V-A CVT), "to"。
(1a)中的划线部分的树形图为：
(3) [a large family](to look after him)
A
／ ＼
CVT[V-A] V
(to) (look after him(=John))
现在看(4a)： (4)a. John has a large family to look after.
b. = John has a large family whom he should look after.
约翰有一个大家庭要照顾。
(4a)中的划线部分是"to"和"look after"的组合。但是"look after"在意思上并不完整，许多英语本族语的人觉得它后面缺少了什么。在本书中我们称"look after"仅仅为一个动词化子(VZ)，并且在它后面由于Equi Rule #3 (参考11-1)而存在一个空隙或者。因此，上述句子(4a)严格地表示应如句子(5)。
(5) John has a large family to look after ?. (=4a)树形图:
(6) [a large family](to look after ?)
A
／ ＼
CVT[V-A] V
(to) (look after a large family)
何时并如何产生呢？当"to V"里的名词和它前面的名词(N)相同时，产生，通过运用法则Equi Rule #3, 产生。在(1a)中, "to look after him"中的名词"him"和在它前面的名词"a large family" 是不一样的，而在(4a)中，两个名词("to"前面隐蔽的"a large family"和"look after"后隐蔽的"a large family")是相同的。换言之，在(1a)中没有多余的东西，而在(4a)则有多余。这正是一个Equi Rule #3的例子。
动词-名词转换子"to"或者动词-副词转换子"to"都不能产生
。 这个功能只属于动词-形容词转换子 "to"。其它例子:
(i) to V24-2 [to + 动词（Ｖ）的复杂扩充形
Ａ的场合：to be Ｖing，to have Ven,等]
to be Ｖing，to have Ven,等]
一个复杂扩充动词可以通过转换子"to"被转变成形容词(A)。
(14) The patient seems to be getting better.
病人看起来有好转。
(15) We seem to have gotten off the point.
我们似乎跑题了。
(14)中划线部分的树形图： (16) (to be getting better)
A
／ ＼
CVT[V-A] V
(to) ／ ＼
EPD[PROG] V
(be-ing) (get better)
24-3 [for + N AD] 当你想在形容词(A) "to V"上增加{Agent}或{Theme}的意思时，你可以用"for N"的形式。(参考 22-5, 23-4)
(17) The library has a lot of books for the children to read ?.
图书馆里有很多书供儿童阅读。
(18) His politeness is a good example for others to follow ?.
他的彬彬有礼是一个供他人学习的好榜样。
同时，(17)和(18)中的"for N"部分不是形容词而是副词。(17)中划线部分的树形图：
(19) [a lot of books] (for the children to read ? )
A
／ ＼
AD A
／ ＼ ／ ＼
CVT[N-AD] N CVT[V-A] V
(for) (the children) (to) (read a lot of books)
24-4 [V-A转换子(V-A CVT):"-ing"] 像转换子"to"一样， "-ing"也可以附在动词(V)上构成形容词(A)，如(20a)：
(20)a. Mary smiled at the baby sleeping in the cradle.
b. = Mary smiled at the baby who was sleeping in the cradle.
玛丽冲着睡在摇篮里的婴儿微笑着。
换言之，(21) V + -ing本书中，这种"-ing"类型叫做 verb-adjective convertor(V-A CVT), "-ing"。(20a)中划线部分的树形图：
(22) (sleeping in the cradle)
A
／ ＼
CVT[V-A] V
(-ing) (sleep in the cradle)
其它例子： (23) The man living next door seldom goes out.
住在隔壁的男人很少出门。
(24) I'd like a room facing the lake, if possible.
如果可能的话，我想要面冲着湖的房间。
(25) We received a letter from Jim saying he's sick in bed.
我们收到吉姆的信说他病了。
(26) He is, as it were, a walking dictionary.
他好像是一本活词典。
24-5 [不明确的Ving形 (ii)] 参考. 22-9对比以下两句。
(27)a. a sleeping BABY (=a baby who is sleeping)
一个正在睡觉的婴儿
b. a SLEEPING car (= a car for sleeping)
一辆卧车
考虑声调，(27a)对应(28a)，(27b)对应(28b)。 (28)a. a brown CASE (= a case which is brown)
一个棕色箱子
b. a BOOK case (= a case for books)
一个书箱。
换言之，(27a) 中的"sleeping"是一个非常接近真正形容词(A)的形容词(A)，而在(27b)中的"SLEEPING"是一个非常接近名词(N)的形容词。树形图：
(29) (sleeping baby)
N
／ ＼
A N
／ ＼ (baby)
CVT[V-A] V
(-ing) (sleep)
(30) (sleeping car)
N
／ ＼
A N
／ ＼ (car)
CVT[OM-NI] N
(?) ／ ＼
CVT[V-N] V
(-ing) (sleep)
24-6 [(being) Ven: A] 比较下列句子。
(31)a. We've got three days to go.
b. We've got three days remaining.
c. We've got three days left.
我们还剩三天。
以上三句具有同样的意思。在(31a)中动词"go"通过V-A CVT "to"被转换，在(31b)中动词"remain"通过V-A CVT "-ing"被转换。那么(31c)呢？肯定的是，(31c)中的"left"包括{Passive被动}和形容词(A)的功能。因此它的树形图为
(32) ((being) left ?)
A
／ ＼
CVT[V-A] V
(-ing) ／ ＼
EPD[PASS] V
(be-en) (leave three days)
(在"being"开头的形容词短语中，前面的"being"往往可以省略。)
其它例句： (33) He bought a boomerang made in France.
他买了个法国制造的回飞棒。
(34) I'll keep my fingers crossed for you.
我会为你祈祷的。
(35) He had his decayed tooth pulled out.
他把他的龋齿拔掉了。
(36) There were a lot of wounded soldiers in the hospital.
在医院里有很多受伤的士兵。
(37) We had to drive with the window closed.
我们不得不关上窗户驾驶。
24-7 [to + V A 与 V + -ing A] 任何动词都可以通过"to"或"-ing"变成形容词，但依情况不同会稍微产生新的意思。
(38)a. John has a large family looking after him.
=John has a large family who are looking after him.
约翰有一个大家庭照顾他。
b. John has a large family to look after him.
=(38a)
=John has a large family who could look after him.
约翰有一个大家庭可以照顾他。
结果，"to V"在某些情况下可以被接受，但在其它一些情况下则不能，"Ving"也是如此。 (39)a. John has a large family to look after ?.
约翰有个大家庭要照顾。
b. *John has a large family looking after ?.
(40)a. *My hometown is a harbor to face the Pacific Ocean.
b. My hometown is a harbor facing the Pacific Ocean.
我的故乡有个面向太平洋的海港。
31楼
backbak 发表于：2006-6-12 9:58:51第二十五课 句子-名词转换子(S-N CVT): "that", "if",等
25-1 [S-N转换子(S-N CVT): "that"/"if"等]
一个在句首带有"that"的核心句(K-S)可以变成一种名词(N)。
一个名词从句有以下三个特征。
在名词或名词短语出现的地方，都可以产生由"that"引导的名词从句。
(12a)中的转换子"that"在(12b)中可以被省略。
(参考8-6)。
25-4 [S-N转换子(S-N CVT): "if/whether"]
像转换子"that"一样, 句子-名词转换子，即sentence-noun convertor(S-N CVT)"if" 可以添加到一个核心句(K-S)上而形成一个名词从句。
比较以下句子。
(30)中的划线部分也是一个名词从句。
比较下列句子。
树形图：
转换子"what"和"how"有时表达{Wh-Exclamation感叹}的意思，而不是{WH-Q}的意思。
当一个被"that/if(whether)/wh-word"引导的名词从句很长的时候，从句通常移到句尾，形式语"it"移到它所在的位置。因此，
总结起来，共有三种S-N CVTs。
一个在句首带有"that"的核心句(K-S)可以变成一种名词(N)。
(1)a. Bill told a lie. 比尔说谎了。
b. I know that Bill told a lie. 我知道比尔说谎了。
c. I know the news. 我知道那个消息了。
(1b)和(1c)中的划线部分可以互换，两者都是名词。我们认为(1b)中的名词(N)是通过在(1a)上添加"that"而形成的。换言之，(2) that + K-S上述的"that"可以被称作是一个转换子，它把一个核心句(K-S)转换成了一个名词(N)。我们称它为一个sentence-noun convertor(S-N CVT), "that"。(1b)中划线部分的树形图为：N
(3) (that Bill told a lie)
N
／ ＼
CVT[S-N] K-S
(that) (Bill told a lie)
如果把整个(1b)当作核心句，我们可以通过添加"that"得到一个新句子。 (4) You know that I know that Bill told a lie.
你知道我已经知道比尔说谎了。
(4)的划线部分的树形图如下： (5) (that I know that Bill told a lie)
N
／ ＼
CVT[S-N] S
(that) (I know that Bill told a lie)
／ ＼
N V
(I) ／ ＼
VZ N
(know) (that Bill told a lie)
／ ＼
CVT[S-N] K-S
(that) (Bill told a lie)
由转换子"that"而形成(1b)和(4)的划线部分，被称作一个名词从句，即noun clause。一个名词从句有以下三个特征。
(i) 它具有"N + V"结构，因此也具有一个必须的扩充子PRS/PST。
(ii) 它含在一个句子(S)里。
(iii) 它具有名词的功能。
25-2 [that从句的Ｎ性] 在名词或名词短语出现的地方，都可以产生由"that"引导的名词从句。
(6)a. The rumor is true. 谣言是真的。
b. That Cindy is pregnant is true. 那个辛迪怀孕是真的。
(7)a. George told me a funny story. 乔治告诉我一个有趣的故事。
b. George told me that he had met a funny girl.
乔治告诉我他遇到一个有趣的女孩。
(8)a. The trouble is Johnny's bad manners. 麻烦的是约翰的没礼貌。
b. The trouble is that Johnny's too much mischievous.
麻烦的是约翰太淘气。
然而，在某些情况中，当常规名词出现时，带有"that"的名词从句可能并不出现。 (9)a. I'm sure of her easy success. 我确信她很容易成功。
b. *I'm sure of that she will succeed easily.
我们认为在名词中，有nouniness的度。例如，考虑一下带有"to/-ing"的名词短语和带有"that"的名词从句之间名词性(nouniness)的度。 (10)a. I want to take the 1:30 train. 我想乘1:30的火车。
b. *I want that I take the 1:30 train.
(11)a. They enjoyed swimming there. 他们在那儿游泳很愉快。
b. *They enjoyed that they swam there.
25-3 ["that"的省略：构造的再分析(reanalysis)] (12a)中的转换子"that"在(12b)中可以被省略。
(12)a. I think that John told a lie. 我认为约翰说谎了。
b. I think John told a lie. 我认为约翰说谎了。
从另一个角度看，在(12b)中，存在OM-NI CVT, (参考8-6)。 (13) ( ? John told a lie)
N
／ ＼
CVT[OM-NI] K-S
( ? ) (John told a lie)
更加非正式的表达方式为：(14) John told a lie, I think. 约翰说谎了，我想。一些人可能会感觉，(14)中的"I think"现在成为了一个副词(AD)。如果是那样的话，(14)的树形图应该为：
(15) (John told a lie, I think)
S
／ ＼
K-S AD
(John told a lie) (I think)
这里出现的是结构的再分析。请看更多例句： (16)a. I'm afraid that it will rain. 我想恐怕要下雨了。
b. I'm afraid it will rain. 我想恐怕要下雨了。
c. It will rain, I'm afraid. 要下雨了，恐怕。
(17)a. Don't you think that they should stay home?
你不认为他们应该待在家里吗?
b. Don't you think they should stay home?
你不认为他们应该待在家里吗?
c. They should stay home, don't you think?
他们应该待在家里，你不认为吗？
(18)a. The trouble is that our quarterback is ill in bed.
麻烦的是我们的橄榄球四分位病倒在床了。
b. The trouble is, our quarterback is ill in bed.
麻烦的是我们的橄榄球四分位病倒在床了。
然而，在某些情况下，"that"不能被省略。 (19)a. That John told a lie is obvious. 约翰说谎是很明显的。
b. *John told a lie is obvious.
(20) The book argues that eventually the housing supply will
increase. (AHBEU, p.40) 那本书认为最终住房供给会增加的。
如果你在(20)中省略"that"，"eventually"的作用域就会变得不清楚，因此整个句子就会变得不明确。25-4 [S-N转换子(S-N CVT): "if/whether"]
像转换子"that"一样, 句子-名词转换子，即sentence-noun convertor(S-N CVT)"if" 可以添加到一个核心句(K-S)上而形成一个名词从句。
(21) John wonders if Mary told a lie. 约翰想知道是否玛丽说谎了。树形图：
(22) (if Mary told a lie)
N
／ ＼
CVT[S-N] K-S
(if) (Mary told a lie)
这个S-N CVT "if"通常可以和"whether"互换。 (23) John wonders if/whether Mary told a lie.
约翰想知道是否玛丽说谎了。
(24) I wonder if/whether you've received my e-mail.
我想知道你是否已经收到我的电子邮件。
(25) I asked him if/whether he could speak Japanese.
我问他是否他能讲日语。
然而， (26)a. Whether he made a mistake is unknown.
他是否犯了错误还不知道。
b. *If he made a mistake is unknown.
25-5 [that从句 与 if从句] 比较以下句子。
(27)a. John wonders that Mary told a lie.
约翰对于玛丽说谎感到惊讶。
b. John wonders if Mary told a lie.
约翰想知道是否玛丽说了谎。
转换子"that"只含有{Nominalization}的意思，然而转换子"if"不仅含有{Nominalization名词化}的意思，而且还有{Yes/No Question疑问}的意思。因此，两个转换子之间意思的差别为： (i) that = {Nominalization名词化}
(ii) if = {Nominalization名词化} + {Yes/No Question疑问}
观察以下句子中"that"和"if"的意思差别。 (28)a. Do you know that she's coming to the party?
你知道她要来聚会的事儿吗？
b. Do you know if she's coming to the party?
你知道她是否要来聚会吗？
(29)a. I don't mind that young people marry young.
我不介意年轻人早结婚。
b. I don't mind if young people marry young.
我不介意年轻人是否早结婚。
25-6 [S-N转换子(S-N CVT):"where", 等] (30)中的划线部分也是一个名词从句。
(30) I don't know where John lives.
我不知道约翰住在哪里。
注意它满足名词从句的三个条件。 (i) 它具有"N + V"的结构，因此也具有PRS/PST。
(ii) 它含在一个句子(S)里。
(iii) 它具有名词(N)的功能。
以上的名词从句有两重含义。 (i) {Nominalization名词化}
(ii) {WH-Q WH疑问}
我们认为sentence-noun convertor(S-N CVT) "where"通过以下步骤把核心句(K-S)转换成了名词从句。 (31) where + [John lives somewhere]
↓Step 1: Substitute "where" for "somewhere".
[John lives where]
↓Step 2: Move "where" to the front.
↓ (? comes out.)
[where John lives ?]
一些其它带有{Nominalization名词化}和{WH-Q疑问}的wh-words单词。 (32) I wonder who drove the car to the beach and back.
我想知道谁驾车去了海滩又回来了。
(33) The astronaut talked about what space was like.
那个宇航员谈论了宇宙是什么样子的。
(34) Do you have any idea when he will be back?
你知道他什么时候回来吗？
(35) John wonders why Mary never wears a miniskirt.
约翰想知道为什么玛丽从来不穿迷你裙。
其他一些则和名词短语一起移到前面。 (36) Can you guess how many pockets this jacket has?
你能猜出这件夹克有多少口袋儿吗？
(37) Do you know whose car this is?
你知道这是谁的车吗？
因此，例如，(36)是由以下方式而产生的。 (38) how many + [this jacket has some pockets]
↓步骤一：把"some"替换成"how many"。
[this jacket has how many pockets]
↓步骤二：把"how many"和"pockets"一同移
↓ 到前面。(? 出现。)
[how many pockets this jacket has ?]
(*how many this jacket has ? pockets)
总结起来，由S-N CVT wh-word引起的步骤为： <S-N CVT wh-word>
步骤一：在核心句(K-S)中把some-word替换成wh-word。
步骤二：把wh-word移到前面。(? 出现。)
下面的(39)和(40)，带有两个wh-words，是个例外。 (39) Gee, you're twins? I can't tell which is which.
天哪，你们是双胞胎？我都分不出谁是谁了？
(40) A picnic? Sounds great! Let's decide who should
bring what.
野餐？太棒了！我们决定一下谁应该带什么吧。
观察一下wh-words怎样对应some-words。 wh-words some-words
(41)a. what ... something, etc.
b. who(m) ... someone, etc.
c. whose ... someone's, etc.
d. where ... somewhere, etc.
e. when ... sometime, etc.
f. why ... for some reason, etc.
g. how ... somehow, etc.
h. which ... one or the other, etc.
i. how often ... some times, etc.
25-7 [EPD? CVT?] 比较下列句子。
(42)a. I don't know where John lives.
我不知道约翰住哪儿。
B. Where does John live?
约翰住哪儿？
前面的"where"是一个转换子(CVT)，它把核心句(K-S)转换成了一个名词(N)，而后者是一个扩充子(EPD)，它把同样的核心句(K-S)扩充成了一个wh-question疑问句(WH-Q-S)。树形图：
(43) (where John lives ? )
N
／ ＼
CVT[S-N] K-S
(where) (John lives somewhere)
(44) (Where does John live ? ?)
WH-Q-S
／ ＼
EPD[WH-Q] K-S
(where) (John lives somewhere)
在下面句子中，转换子"what"和扩充子"what"恰好产生同样的结果。 (45)a. He asked me what followed. (CVT[S-N])
他问我接着有什么？
b. What followed? (EPD[WH-Q])
接着有什么？
25-8 [{WH感叹}的Ｓ－Ｎ转换子(S-N CVT)：how/what] 参考21-8转换子"what"和"how"有时表达{Wh-Exclamation感叹}的意思，而不是{WH-Q}的意思。
(46) It is incredible how fast she can run. (Quirk, p.1055)
不可思议她能跑得那么快。
(47) I remember what a good time I had at your party.
记得在你的聚会中我度过了多么愉快的时光。
在以上将要被转换的核心句(K-S)中应该有"very"在里面。因此，(46)里的划线部分的树形图为： (48) (how fast she can run ? )
N
／ ＼
CVT[S-N] K-S
(how) (she can run very fast)
25-9 [形式语"it"..."that/whether/WH从句] 当一个被"that/if(whether)/wh-word"引导的名词从句很长的时候，从句通常移到句尾，形式语"it"移到它所在的位置。因此，
(49)a. It is a miracle that he is safe.
b. That he is safe is a miracle.
他平安无事真是一个奇迹。
(50)a. It is doubtful whether we should sign such a contract.
b. Whether we should sign such a contract is doubtful.
我们时候应该签署这样的一个协议值得怀疑。
(51)a. It has not been decided when the next meeting will be
held.
b. When the next meeting will be held has not been decided.
下一次会议什么时候召开还没有决定。
(52)a. It doesn't matter to me what has become of him.
b. What has become of him doesn't matter to me.
他变成什么样与我没有关系。
(53)a. It's still an open question why they built the pyramids.
b. Why they built the pyramids is still an open question.
他们什么时候建造的金字塔仍然是一个谜。
这种类型的"it"有时是必须的。 (54)a. It is said that he took dirty money.
听说他拿了不正当的钱。
b. *That he took dirty money is said.
(55)a. Is it my imagination that this baggage is heavier than
usual?
这个行李比往常的重，是我的错觉吗？
b. *Is that this baggage is heavier than usual my
imagination?
(56)a. He made it clear that he was against the proposal.
他明确地表明他反对这项建议。
b. *He made that he was against the proposal clear.
25-10 [总结：Ｓ－Ｎ转换子（S-N CVT)] 总结起来，共有三种S-N CVTs。
S-N CVTs : {Meanings含义}
(i) "that" : {Nominalization名词化}
(ii) "if/whether": {Nominalization名词化} + {Yes/No Question疑问}
(iii) "wh-words"(what/where/etc) : {Nominalization名词化}+{Wh-Question疑问}
请看由三种S-N CVTs所引导的三种名词从句。 (57)a. I wonder that the girl loves a frog.
我对那个女孩喜欢青蛙很惊讶。
(
that + [The girl loves a frog])
b. I wonder if the girl loves a frog.
我想知道那个女孩是否喜欢青蛙。
( if + [The girl loves a frog])
c. I wonder why the girl loves a frog ?.
我想知道那个女孩为什么喜欢青蛙。
( why + [The girl loves a frog somehow])32楼
backbak 发表于：2006-6-12 9:59:06第二十六课 S-AD转换子(S-AD CVT): "because",等。
26-1 [S-AD转换子(S-AD CVT): because]
一个在前面带有"because"的核心句(K-S)可以转变成一个副词(AD)。
除了"because"，还有其它一些S-AD CVTs。
一些S-AD CVTs也可以当作N-AD CVT使用。
转换子"if"有时具有S-AD CVT的功能，有时则作为一个S-N CVT。
一些S-AD CVTs不仅可以由单个单词组成，还可以由短语组成，它被称作大块转换子，即chunk CVT 或石阶式转换子，即 stepping-stone CVT。
在以下两个句子中，划线部分都是由转换子"if"所形成的状语从句。然而，两个句子不一样。
我们认为，这是一个在句子(S)上添加虚拟含义的句子扩充子。我们称它为S EPD {Subjunctive} 或 SUBJ，这个扩充子如下运作。
扩充子SUBJ有时和PST一起出现。
" 则表示 {Past过去}和{Subjunctive虚拟}。
26-8 [N/A从句中的SUBJ]
扩充子SUBJ可以出现在名词从句，形容词（定语）从句和副词（状语）从句中。
扩充子SUBJ可以和短语甚至单词或句子出现在一起。因此，在以下句子中你不能断定划线部分单独时是什么情况。
在比较老式的表达方法中，{Subjunctive虚拟} "if"的意思和功能可以通过倒置来表达。
一个在前面带有"because"的核心句(K-S)可以转变成一个副词(AD)。
(1)a. I overslept. 我睡过头了。
b. Because I overslept, I missed the train.
因为睡过头了，没赶上火车。
c. Unfortunately I missed the train. 不幸地是，我没赶上火车。
(1b)和(1c)中的划线部分可以互换；它是通过在(1a)上添加"because"而形成的副词。换言之：(2) because + K-S我们把这个"because"叫做句子-副词转换子，即sentence-adverb convertor(S-AD CVT), "because"。(1b)中的划线部分的树形图为：AD
(3) (because I overslept)
AD
／ ＼
CVT[S-AD] K-S
(because) (I overslept)
在(1b)中的划线部分是一个状语从句，adverbial clause，因为它具有以下三个特征。 (i) 它具有"N + V"结构, 因此也具有PRS/PST。
(ii) 它含在一个句子(S)中。
(iii) 它具有副词(AD)的功能。
26-2 [其它的(S-AD CVT)："after", "when",等] 除了"because"，还有其它一些S-AD CVTs。
(i) <after>
(4) I received a letter three months after she left.
她离开三个月后，我收到一封信。
(ii) <as>
(5) Light is refracted as it passes through a lens.
当光通过透镜时会折射。
(6) As it grew darker, it became colder.
天越黑，就越冷。
(7) Everything is going as I expected.
一切都像我期待地那样进行着。
(8) As Dex is honest, everybody likes him.
因为戴克斯诚实，所以大家喜欢他。
(9) Poor as we are, we are not unhappy.
虽然我们贫穷，但是我们并不沮丧。
(iii) <before>
(10) I had counted 22,576 sheep before I fell asleep.
在我睡着之前我数了22，576只羊。
(iv) <if>
(11) If you have any questions, please don't hesitate to ask.
如果你有任何问题，请不要犹豫来问。
(12) We'll finish it, if it takes us all day.
如果花一整天我们会完成。
(v) <since>
(13) Since I was a child, I've enjoyed taking things apart
and putting them back together again.
自从我是孩子的时候，我就喜欢把东西拆了然后再装上。
(14) Since you're no longer a child, you should know better.
既然你不再是孩子了，你应该更更好地了解。
(vi) <though/although>
(15) Though/Although I live near the sea, I can't swim.
虽然我住在海边，但是我不会游泳。
(vii) <when>
(16) When I was watching television, the telephone rang.
当我正在看电视的时候，电话铃响了。
(17) How can you pass the exam when you don't study?
你不学习怎么通过考试？
(viii) <while>
(18) A Mr.Goodrich called you while you were out.
在你离开的时候，有个Goodrich先生给你打电话了。
(19) We throw away tons of leftovers every day in Japan,
while in other countries many are dying of hunger.
在日本我们每天扔掉成吨的剩余食品，然而在别的国家，
许多人因为饥饿而面临死亡。
(ix) <Others>
(20) Until/Till the steamboat came, the Mississippi was a
one-way river -- downstream.
在汽船到来之前，密西西比河一直都是一个单向河流---下游。
(21) I'm lucky that my wife is such a good cook.
我很幸运我妻子会做一手好菜。
(22) Now you're here, you'd better stay.
既然你都在这儿了，最好留下来。
(23) Once he makes a promise, he never breaks it.
他一旦许诺，就决不会食言。
(24) Whenever she goes out, she changes her clothes.
无论她什么时候出去，她都会换衣服。
26-3 [S-AD 转换子 与 N-AD 转换子)] 一些S-AD CVTs也可以当作N-AD CVT使用。
(25)a. That actress has not appeared on TV since she retired.
b. That actress has not appeared on TV since her
retirement.
那位女演员自从退休就没在电视上出现过。
(26)a. We'll wait until he arrives.
b. We'll wait until his arrival.
我们将一直等到她来。
然而，其它的只能用作S-AD CVT 或 N-AD CVT。 (27)a. He failed in the exam because he was lazy.
因为他懒惰，所以考试没及格。
b. *He failed in the exam because of he was lazy.
(28)a. He failed in the exam because of his laziness.
因为他的懒惰，所以考试没及格。
b. *He failed in the exam because his laziness.
26-4 ["if"(S-AD CVT) 与 "if"(S-N CVT)] 转换子"if"有时具有S-AD CVT的功能，有时则作为一个S-N CVT。
(29) If he comes back, I'll tell you. (S-AD CVT)
如果他回来，我会告诉你。
(30) I wonder if he will come back. (S-N CVT)
我不知道他是否将回来。
树形图： (31) (if he comes back)
AD
／ ＼
CVT[S-AD] K-S
(if) (he comes back)
(32) (if he will come back)
N
／ ＼
CVT[S-N] K-S
(if) (he will come back)
26-5 [大块转换子 和 石阶式转换子] 一些S-AD CVTs不仅可以由单个单词组成，还可以由短语组成，它被称作大块转换子，即chunk CVT 或石阶式转换子，即 stepping-stone CVT。
(i) <chunk CVTs>
(33) The moment she touched him, he turned into stone.
当她碰到他的瞬间，他变成了石头。
(34) She talked as if she knew him.
她交谈着好像她早就认识他。
(35) Many countries participate in the Olympic Games
every time they are held.
每次举办奥运会，许多国家都参加。
(36) As far as mathematics is concerned, no one in the class
can match him.
就数学而言，班里没有一个人能比过他。
(37) His mother loved him the more because he was stupid.
他的母亲更爱他，因为他有点笨。
(ii) <stepping-stone CVTs>
(38) The pizza was so hot that nobody could eat it.
比萨饼太烫，每人能吃。
(39) I practiced very hard so that I might win the race.
我努力地练习以至能赢那场比赛。
(40) As lungs are to animals, so are leaves to plants.
就像动物和其肺的关系，植物和其叶子的关系与之是一样的。
(41) The higher up in the air we go, the colder it becomes.
我们越往空中高处走，空气就变得越冷。
(42) This job isn't as easy as you think.
这份工作不像你想象的那样简单。
26-6 [S扩充子{虚拟(subjunctive)}: SUBJ] 在以下两个句子中，划线部分都是由转换子"if"所形成的状语从句。然而，两个句子不一样。
(43) If it rains tomorrow, I will stay home.
如果明天下雨，我就待在家里。
(44) If I were you, I wouldn't do that.
如果我是你，我就不会那么做。
如果你检查这些句子，你会发现以下不同。 (i) 在含义上：
a) (43)中的"if"具有50%的可能性。
(通常被称作条件的"if"，即conditional "if"。)
b) (44)中的"if"具有0%的可能性。
(通常被称作虚拟的"if"，即subjunctive "if"。)
(ii) 在形式上：
a) (43)中的动词(V)是PRS形式。(rains)
b) (44)中的动词(V)是PST形式。(were)
(44)中的划线部分有{Although it is not the fact虽然不是事实}或者{Subjunctive虚拟}的意思，在形式上是PST。我们认为，这是一个在句子(S)上添加虚拟含义的句子扩充子。我们称它为S EPD {Subjunctive} 或 SUBJ，这个扩充子如下运作。
<SUBJ>
步骤一：在AGR(PRS/PST)上往过去提一个时态。
(44)中划线部分的树形图为： (45) (if I were you)
AD
／ ＼
CVT[S-AD] S
(if) (I were you)
／ ＼
EPD[SUBJ] K-S
(I am you)
26-7 [过去的{虚拟}] 扩充子SUBJ有时和PST一起出现。
注意，在(46)中动词最左边的部分是按以下步骤变化的。如果我们当时有份好地图，我们就会很容易地找到捷径了。
两个意思{Past过去}和{Subjunctive虚拟}需要动词有两个步骤的时态变换。相似的例子为：
(47) If the parents had been more careful, the tragedy would
have been prevented.
如果那家父母当时更小心些，就可以避免悲剧的发生了。
(48) If it had not been for your advice, I might have failed.
如果当时不是你的建议，我可能就失败了。
一个有趣的例子：在(49)中, "would be"仅仅表示{Subjunctive虚拟}，"如果我当时买下那块地，我就会成为亿万富翁了。
" 则表示 {Past过去}和{Subjunctive虚拟}。26-8 [N/A从句中的SUBJ]
扩充子SUBJ可以出现在名词从句，形容词（定语）从句和副词（状语）从句中。
(50) I wish I were a bird. (N名词)
我希望我是一只鸟。
(51) She looked as if she had seen a ghost or something. (A形容词)
她看起来好像她刚看到幽灵什么的。
树形图： (52) ( ? I were a bird)
N
／ ＼
CVT[OM-NI] S
( ? ) (I were a bird)
／ ＼
EPD[SUBJ] K-S
(I am a bird)
(53) (as if she had seen a ghost or something)
A
／ ＼
CVT[S-A] S
(as if) (She had seen a ghost or something)
／ ＼
EPD[SUBJ] K-S
(She has seen a ghost or something)
26-9 [SUBJ +短语] 扩充子SUBJ可以和短语甚至单词或句子出现在一起。因此，在以下句子中你不能断定划线部分单独时是什么情况。
(i) Present Condition 现在情况
(54)a. Without your help, I can not do it.
没有你的帮助，我做不了这这件事。
(ii) Present Subjunctive 现在虚拟情况
b. Without your help, I could not do it.
没有没有你的帮助，我不可能做成这件事。
(iii) Past Subjunctive 过去虚拟情况
c. Without your help, I could not have done it.
如果当时没有你的帮助，我不可能做成这件事。
26-10 [倒置(Inversion)=省略"if"] 在比较老式的表达方法中，{Subjunctive虚拟} "if"的意思和功能可以通过倒置来表达。
(55)a. If it were not for the sun, nothing could live.
b. = Were it not for the sun, nothing could live.
如果没有太阳，就不可能存在生物。
(56)a. If he had been born twenty years earlier, he would
have been successful.
b. = Had he been born twenty years earlier, he would have
been successful.
如果他早出生二十年，他就会成功。33楼
backbak 发表于：2006-6-12 10:08:50第二十七课 S-A转换子(S-A CVT): "that", "which",
"who(m)", 等。
"who(m)", 等。
27-1 [S-A转换子(S-A CVT): "that"]
一个在前面带有"that"的核心句(K-S)，可以转换成一个形容词(A)。
句子-形容词转换子，即sentence-adjective convertor(S-A CVT) "that"在这里的功能是把一个核心句(K-S)转换成形容词(A)。
27-2 [空格 (
)]
让我们看看一个核心句(K-S)是如何通过"that"转变成形容词的。
。
27-3 [其它的S-A转换子(S-A CVT)："which","who",等]
一些其它的句子-形容词转换子(S-A CVTs)用"that"。
在这里被省略。)
restrictive)]
restrictive)]
比较下面两划线部分，并考虑它们意思上有何不同。
很重要的是，注意转换子"that"只有限制性的用法，而转换子"which", "who", "whom", "whose"则既有限制的又有非限制性的用法。
在限制性用法中，位于两个名词之间的转换子有时可省略。
)，可选择的和必须的。(24b)和(25b)应该更严格地写成：
1是可选择的，而2是必须的。
27-6 ["the thing which" → "what"]
比较以下三个例子：
其它一些S-A CVTs的变形。
一个在前面带有"that"的核心句(K-S)，可以转换成一个形容词(A)。
(1)a. The fish was caught by John.
那条鱼被约翰捕到了。
b. The fish that ? was caught by John was big.
约翰捕到的那条鱼很大。
c. The fish caught by John was big.
约翰捕到的那条鱼很大。
句子(1a)是个独立的句子。但是，当你把"that"放到它前面时，它就变成了一个形容词，而它的意思与(1c)相同。句子-形容词转换子，即sentence-adjective convertor(S-A CVT) "that"在这里的功能是把一个核心句(K-S)转换成形容词(A)。
27-2 [空格 (
)] 让我们看看一个核心句(K-S)是如何通过"that"转变成形容词的。
(2) (the fish) [the fish was caught by John]
↓步骤一：把"that"放在K-S的最前面。
(the fish) [that + the fish was caught by John]
↓步骤二：确定两个名词是否相同。
(the fish) [that the fish was caught by John]
↓步骤三：把第二个名词去掉。(? 出现。)
(the fish) [that ? was caught by John]
(1b)中名词短语"the fish that ? was caught by John"的树形图为： (3) (the fish that ? was caught by John)
N
／ ＼
N A
(the fish) ／ ＼
CVT[S-A] S
(that) ／ ＼
N V
(the fish) (was caught by John)
→ ?
另一例：(4) The fish that John caught ? was big. 约翰捕到的鱼很大。划线部分按下列步骤生成。
(5) (the fish) [John caught the fish]
↓步骤一：把"that"放在K-S最前面。
(the fish) [that + John caught the fish]
↓步骤二：确认两个名词是否相同。
(the fish) [that John caught the fish]
↓步骤三：把去掉第二个名词。(? 出现)
(the fish) [that John caught ?]
(4)当中的名词短语"the fish that John caught ?"的树形图为： (6) (the fish that John caught ?)
N
／ ＼
N A
(the fish) ／ ＼
CVT[S-A] S
(that) ／ ＼
N V
(John) ／ ＼
VZ N
(caught) (the fish)
→ ?
(1b)和(4)中的划线部分应该被称作一个形容词从句，即adjective clause,它具有以下四个特征。 (i) 它具有"N + V"的结构，因此也具有PRS/PST。
(ii) 它含在一个句子里(S)。
(iii) 它具有形容词(A)的功能。
并且，最重要的第四个特征为：(iv) 它具有间隙 ?. (Equi Rule #3)。公式为：
(7) that + K-S换言之，转换子"that"引发三个步骤的操作。A (w/ ?)
<S-A CVT "that">
步骤一：把"that"放到核心句(K-S)最前面。
步骤二：确定两个名词是否相同。
步骤三：删除第二个名词。(? 出现。) (Equi Rule #3)
注意，句子-形容词转换子"that"总是会产生空隙，即。27-3 [其它的S-A转换子(S-A CVT)："which","who",等]
一些其它的句子-形容词转换子(S-A CVTs)用"that"。
(i) <which>当要被删掉的名词是人[-human]的时候，转换子"which"要变成"that"。(
在这里被省略。) (8) The Seine is a big river that/which runs through Paris.
塞纳河是一条贯穿巴黎的大河。
(9) The things that/which he had left in his locker
disappeared.
他落在柜子里的东西不见了。
(10) This is the speeding ticket that/which I got last week.
这是我上周得到的超速驾驶的罚单。
(ii) <who/whom>
当要被删掉的名词是人[+human]的时候，转换子"that"要变成"who/whom"。 (11) A friend of mine that/who studies metal fatigue never
travels by air.
我的一个研究金属疲劳的朋友从来都没乘飞机旅行过。
(12) The lady that/whom the kidnapper talked to was a
policewoman.
那个和绑匪对话的女士是位警察。
(13) I met a woman that/who I thought was my aunt.
我遇见一位我认为是我姑姑的女人。
(iii) <whose>
转换子"whose"可以用来代替"of which"和"of whom"。 (14)a. The mountain the top of which is covered with snow is
Mt. Asama.
b. = The mountain whose top is covered with snow is
Mt. Asama.
山顶覆盖着雪的山是浅殓山。
(15)a. The girl the father of whom is a great scientist likes
mathematics.
b. = The girl whose father is a great scientist likes
mathematics.
其父亲是位伟大的科学家的女孩喜欢数学。
这些不同的转换子大多都可以和转换子"that"互换。以下情况除外： (i) 不能用"that"的情况。
(16)a. The house in
which we once lived is now for sale.
我们曾住过的那个房子现在正在出售。
b. *The house in
that we once lived is now for sale.
(17)a. The boss under
whom I work used to be a heavy smoker.
我的老板过去曾是一个烟鬼。
b. *The boss under
that I work used to be a heavy smoker.
(ii) 只能用"that"的情况。
(18) There is the very girl that/*whom I've been looking for.
这恰恰是我一直都在寻找的那个女孩。
(19) That's the last thing that/*which I want to do.
那是我最不想做的一件事。
27-4 [制限性的用法(restrictive) 与 非制限性的用法(non-restrictive)]
restrictive)]
比较下面两划线部分，并考虑它们意思上有何不同。
(20)a. The fish which John caught was big.
约翰捕到的那条鱼很大
b. The fish, which John caught, was big.
那条鱼，约翰捕到的，很大。
(20a)的意思是约翰捕到一条鱼，而且很大，而(20b)的意思是那条鱼很大，并且顺便提到它是约翰捕到的。句子(20b)和句子(21)非常接近。(21) The fish -- John caught it -- was big. 那条鱼---约翰捕到的---很大。在(20)中的两划线部分显示了埋藏(embedding)或独立(independence)“度”的不同。(20a)中的划线部分通常被称作限制性的用法，即restrictive use, 而(20b)中的划线部分被称作非限制性的用法，即non-restrictive use。
很重要的是，注意转换子"that"只有限制性的用法，而转换子"which", "who", "whom", "whose"则既有限制的又有非限制性的用法。
(22)a. The book which/that I bought yesterday is very
interesting.
我昨天买的那本书很有意思。
b. The book, which/*that I bought yesterday, is very
interesting.
那本书，我昨天买的，很有意思。
(23)a. The man who/that read the book was quite moved.
读那本书的男士被感动了。
b. The man, who/*that read the book, was quite moved.
那位男士，读书的那位，被感动了。
27-5 [S-A转换子(S-A CVT)的省略] 在限制性用法中，位于两个名词之间的转换子有时可省略。
(24)a. The pizza that/which the boy delivered was cold.
b. The pizza ? the boy delivered was cold.
那个男孩作的比萨饼凉了。
(25)a. The president that/whom we voted for resigned.
b. The president ? we voted for resigned.
我们投赞成票的那位总统辞职了。
但是，(26) *The president for ? we voted resigned.我们应该注意在(24b)和(25b)中，技术上存在两种不同的(
)，可选择的和必须的。(24b)和(25b)应该更严格地写成： (27) The pizza ?1 the boy delivered ?2 was cold.
(28) The president ?1 we voted for ?2 resigned.
1是可选择的，而2是必须的。27-6 ["the thing which" → "what"]
比较以下三个例子：
(29)a. The first question he asked was what I bought in Mexico.
(S-N CVT:"what")
他问我的第一个问题是我在墨西哥买什么了。
b. I gave him what I bought in Mexico.
我给了他我在墨西哥买的东西。
("the thing which" → "what")
c. Guess what I bought in Mexico.
猜我在墨西哥买什么了。
(ambiguous不确定)
(29a)中的划线部分来自核心句，"I bought something in Mexico"，作为句子-名词转换子(S-N CVT) 的"what"起了作用。 (30) (what I bought ? in Mexico)
N
／ ＼
CVT[S-N] K-S
(what) (I bought something in Mexico)
然而，(29b)的划线部分可以改写为(31)中那样。(31) I gave him the thing which I bought ? in Mexico. 我给了他我在墨西哥买的东西。单词"what"是"the thing"加上S-A CVT "which/that"的变形，即variant form。(29b)中相关部分的树形图为：
(32) (what I bought ? in Mexico)
N
／ ＼
N A
(the thing) (which I bought ? in Mexico)
| ／ ＼
| CVT[S-A] K-S
| (which) (I bought the thing in Mexico)
| |
(the thing which → what)
在某些情况下，像在(29c)中一样，很难区分它们。让我们再看一下每种情况下的例子。 (i) <S-N CVT: "what">
(33) Tell me what your name is.
告诉我你的名字是什么。
(34) I wonder what happened in the family.
我想知道家里发生什么事了。
(ii) <"the thing which" → "what">
(35) I wore what I liked best.
我穿/戴上了我最喜欢的。
(36) What was a small village five years ago has developed
into a huge town.
五年前的小村庄已经发展成了大城市。
(37) They are all what you call baby boomers.
他们都是你称作的(美国)生育高峰期出生的人。
(38) You must do what you said you would.
你必须做你说过你能做的事儿。
(iii) <ambiguous不确定>
(39) I can imagine what she is saying.
我能想象得出她说什么。
(40) What he does matches what he says.
他所做的和他所说的不一致。
(41) Things are not always what they look like.
事情不总是它们看起来那样。
27-7 ["in which/that...to" → "when/where"] 其它一些S-A CVTs的变形。
(42)a. There are occasions in which we feel like cutting
classes.
b. = There are occasions when we feel like cutting classes.
有些时候我们想逃课。
(43)a. She has always loved the town in which she spent her
childhood.
b. = She has always loved the town where she spent her
childhood.
她一直喜欢她曾经度过童年时代的城镇。
(44)a. Tell me some specific cases that the rule cannot be
applied to.
b. = Tell me some specific cases where the rule cannot be
applied.
告诉我一些不能运用该规则的特殊情况。
34楼
发财小驴 发表于：2006-6-13 15:46:18楼主，谢谢你，你就不能打个包吗？这样你穿上来也累啊
35楼
sophiaanew 发表于：2006-6-26 13:03:26thank you for uploading.
but it's a bit too formal, therefore a little dull, to be frank.
but thank you all the same.
Like you, I am not expert in computer skills, and I don't know how to upload materials.
36楼
594天 发表于：2008-12-26 8:09:10那么好帖。。。居然不精华~~可惜鸟
37楼
赵壮壮 发表于：2009-1-17 19:16:25楼主，谢谢你，你就不能打个包吗？
38楼
rpsg 发表于：2009-7-12 23:51:50 非常感谢，copy下来给我儿子学习了。
39楼
u79979 发表于：2009-7-17 13:19:03Wow!! i don't know what to say after reading this!
40楼
zxpjf 发表于：2009-7-22 9:29:03那么好帖。。。居然不精华~~可惜鸟
